蘭芳共和國：西加里曼丹華人區的金礦工、農夫與商人

以下是整篇文章的繁體中文翻譯：

​一個國家的歧視歷史

​作者：Agustinus B. da Costa，特約撰稿人（雅加達）| 生活版 | 2009年11月29日（週日）下午 5:34

​1998年5月那場惡名昭彰的暴動中，印尼華人成為襲擊目標，商店與住宅遭到搶劫，但這並非印尼歷史上孤立的族群衝突事件。

​西加里曼丹（又稱西婆羅洲）一處小型華人社區的故事表明，對印尼華人的暴力與歧視，伴隨著現代印尼的歷史發展而演變。

​這種歷史演變是《西加里曼丹華人區的金礦工、農夫與商人》（Penambang Emas, Petani dan Pedagang di Distrik Tionghoa Kalimantan Barat）一書的核心重點。該書作者為美國康奈爾大學東南亞系的講師瑪麗·索默斯·海德休斯（Mary Somers Heidhues）。

​本書記錄了西加里曼丹華人社區自荷蘭殖民時期、日據時期、獨立後的印尼、新秩序時期（New Order），直至今日改革時代（Reform era）的歷史。

​最早的華人移民是在1740年初，應蒙帕瓦（Panembahan Mempawah）與三發蘇丹（Sultan of Sambas）的邀請來到西加里曼丹。馬來貴族之所以邀請華人，是因為華人擁有比當地人更先進的採礦技術；當時當地人（達雅族與馬來各部落）大多從事農業。

​在西加里曼丹，華人將工人組織成稱為「公司」（kongsi）的團體。每個公司的成員選舉自己的首領，並平分採礦活動的利潤，部分公司甚至聯合組成聯邦。

​當時主要有三個「公司」：位於蒙特拉多（Monterado）的和順/大公公司（Fosjoen/Thaikong，1776-1854）、位於曼多（Mandor）的蘭芳公司（Lanfang，1777-1884），以及於1819或1822年從和順公司分拆出來的三條溝公司（Samtiaokioe）。三條溝公司於1850年逃往砂拉越領地，並在七年後對布魯克政權（Brooke regime）造成了災難性的後果。

​「公司」的辦事處兼具多種功能，包括公共行政中心、主席住所、集會廳及宗教祠堂。

​最終，這些獨立且民主的「公司」的存在，對當地王國及其盟友荷蘭殖民勢力構成了威脅。1850年9月，荷蘭殖民政府發起軍事行動以解散「公司」。

​這引發了三次公司戰爭（1822-1824、1850-1854、1884-1885），並波及至1857年砂拉越（位於馬來西亞婆羅洲）的華人起義。第一次衝突是荷蘭新政權企圖控制「公司」的嘗試；最後一個公司「蘭芳公司」於1884至1885年間消亡。

​公司戰爭不僅僅是華人抵抗荷蘭人的產物，背後還涉及複雜的族群與政治聯盟。在「公司」瓦解後，隨之而來的是人口銳減與貧困化。

​直到19世紀末，華人開始大量返回西加里曼丹。這次驅使他們前往的不再是黃金，而是農業。他們主導了林產品（天然橡膠、藤條與木材）的貿易。

​在政治領域，荷蘭殖民政府任命華人官員來管理勞務，並充當殖民政府與華人移民之間的仲介。他們的工作是徵收稅款、組織強制勞役及收取鴉片稅。

​由於不堪1912年與1914年重稅的負擔，華人與達雅人及馬來人一同起義反抗荷蘭人。殖民政府將這起叛亂歸咎於華人秘密幫會以及受1911年中國辛亥革命啟發的民族主義運動。然而，叛亂很快被少數荷蘭軍隊鎮壓。

​第二次世界大戰期間，荷蘭殖民政權倒台，西加里曼丹進入日據時期。1943年初，日本軍方策劃了一場針對當地人的大屠殺。他們指控前西加里曼丹總督與一個多族群叛亂組織合作反抗日本殖民勢力。

​數千人被殺害，其中包括當地的蘇丹、貴族、前荷蘭官員、記者、醫生及華人商人。這起事件被稱為「坤甸事件」（Pontianak Affair）；為了紀念此事件，印尼政府於1970年在事發現場修建了紀念碑。

​印尼獨立後，華人社區面臨更大的壓力。自1950年代起，隨著雅加達當局將權力擴展至該地區，一系列法規動搖了西加里曼丹華人的當地經濟與文化機構。

​印尼政府於1959年頒布法規，限制非公民的各項經濟活動。結果導致數以千計的華人逃回中國祖國或移民海外，華文學校也被迫關閉。

​破壞性最大且最令人心碎的，是1967年發生的「達雅襲擊事件」（Dayak raids），該事件發生於1965年印尼共產黨政變失敗之後。

​印尼軍方以達雅人的名義，發起了一場針對印尼社會中所謂「共產分子」的清肅行動。當時所有的華人社區都被視為中共的支持者。

​數千人被殺害，其他人則逃往難民營。這場襲擊的結果是華人被逐出鄉村地區。

​威權體制的新秩序政府禁止了所有中國文化表達，包括語言（國語/華語、客家話與潮州話）、舞獅（barongsai）以及農曆新年的慶祝活動。

​直到改革時代，時任總統阿卜杜拉赫曼·瓦希德（Abdurrahman Wahid）才廢除了所有這些禁令。

​本書在社會、經濟與政治鬥爭的背景下，對西加里曼丹的華人少數族群進行了完整的研究，對印尼的地方史作出了巨大貢獻。

​《西加里曼丹華人區的金礦工、農夫與商人》

（Gold Miners, Farmers and Traders in the 'Chinese Districts' of West Borneo）

作者：瑪麗·索默斯·海德休斯（Mary Somers Heidhues）

出版單位：Yayasan Nabila，2008年10月

頁數：342頁

A nation's history of discrimination

Agustinus B. da Costa, Contributor, Jakarta | Life | Sun, November 29 2009, 5:34 PM

The now infamous May 1998 riots in which Indonesian Chinese were the target of attacks and their shops and houses looted were not an isolated incident of ethnic conflict in Indonesian history.

The stories of a small Chinese community in West Kalimantan (also known as West Borneo) show that violence and discrimination against ethnic Chinese Indonesians have evolved throughout the history of modern Indonesia.

This historical evolution is the focus of a book titled Penambang Emas, Petani dan Pedagang di Distrik Tionghoa Kalimantan Barat (Gold Miners, Farmers and Traders in the "Chinese Districts" of West Kalimantan) by Mary Somers Heidhues, a lecturer in the Southeast Asia Department of Cornell University in the United States.

The book records the history of the Chinese community in West Kalimantan since the Dutch colonial era, through the Japanese occupation, into post-Independence Indonesia, the New Order and finally the present day Reform era.

The first Chinese settlers came to West Kalimantan at the request of Panembahan Mempawah and the Sultan of Sambas in early 1740. Malayan nobles invited the Chinese because they had more advanced mining technology than local people. At that time, the local people, the Dayaks and Malayan tribes, were mostly farmers.

In West Kalimantan, the Chinese people organized their workers in groups called kongsi. The members of each kongsi elected their own head and shared the profits from mining activities. Some kongsi united into federations.

There were three principal kongsi: Fosjoen/Thaikong in Monterado (1776-1854), Lanfang in Mandor (1777-1884) and Samtiaokioe, which separated from Fosjoen in either 1819 or 1822 and then fled in 1850 into Sarawak territory with disastrous results for the Brooke regime seven years later.

The office of kongsi had several roles, including as a center of public administration, residence of the chairmen, public hall and religious shrine.

Eventually, the existence of the independent and democratic kongsi became a threat to the local kingdoms and their ally, the Dutch colonial power. In September 1850, the Dutch colonial government began a military campaign to dismiss the kongsi.

This resulted in three kongsi wars (1822-1824, 1850-1854, 1884-1885), with a spillover in the 1857 Chinese uprising in Sarawak (in Malaysian Borneo). The first conflict was an attempt by the new Dutch regime to control the kongsi. The last kongsi, Lanfang, vanished in 1884-1885.

The kongsi wars were not simply an outcome of the Chinese resistance against the Dutch. There were complex ethnic and political alliances. After the demise of the kongsi, depopulation and impoverishment followed.

It was only at the end of the 19th century that Chinese people started to return to West Kalimantan in significant numbers. This time, it was not gold but agriculture that drove them to come. They dominated the trade of forest products (gutta-percha, rattan and lumber).

In the political field, the Dutch colonial government appointed Chinese officers to control the work and become the intermediaries between them and the Chinese settlers. Their tasks were to collect taxes, to organize forced labor and to collect the opium levy.

Burdened by the heavy taxes in 1912 and 1914 the Chinese, along with the Dayaks and Malayans, rebelled against the Dutch .The colonial government blamed the Chinese secret societies and nationalist movement - inspired by the 1911 Chinese revolution - for being behind the rebellion. But a small number of Dutch troops suppressed the rebellion.

During World War II, the Dutch colonial regime fell under Japanese occupation, including West Kalimantan. In early 1943, the Japanese military orchestrated a massacre of the locals. They accused the former West Kalimantan governor of collaborating with a multi-ethnic rebellion to fight against the Japanese colonial power.

Thousands of people, including the local sultan, nobles, ex-Dutch officers, journalists, doctors and Chinese businessmen, were killed. This incident was remembered as the Pontianak Affair; to commemorate it, the Indonesian government built a memorial monument at the scene in 1970.

After Indonesia gained independence, the Chinese community came under further pressure. Beginning in the 1950s, a set of regulations destabilized the local economy and cultural institutions of the Chinese in West Kalimantan as Jakarta extended its authority throughout the region.

The government of Indonesia issued a regulation in 1959 that limited various economic activities by non-citizens. As a consequence, thousands of Chinese people fled back to their motherland and overseas. Chinese schools were also closed.

Most devastating and traumatic was the event known as the "Dayak raids" in 1967, which took place after the failed coup by the Indonesian Communist Party in 1965.

In the name of the Dayak people, the Indonesian military ran a campaign against what they called the "communist element" in Indonesian society. All Chinese communities at the time were considered supporters of communist China.

Thousands of people were killed and others fled to refugee camps. The result of the raid was the expulsion of Chinese from rural areas.

The authoritarian New Order government banned every cultural expression of China including its languages (Mandarin, Hakka and Teochiu), the barongsai lion dance and the celebration of the Chinese Lunar New Year.

In the Reform era, all these bans were lifted by then president Abdurrahman Wahid.

This book, which is a complete study of the Chinese minority in West Kalimantan in the context of social, economic and political struggle, makes a huge contribution to local history in Indonesia.

Gold Miners, Farmers and Traders in the *Chinese Districts' of West Borneo

Mary Somers Heidhues

Yayasan Nabila, Oct 2008

342 pp