除了中東人民的覺醒之外,另一說法,是西方列強如英國及法國刻意在中東對阿拉伯民族主義推波助瀾,目的在於支解於一戰時期站在德國及奧匈等同盟國敵對陣營的鄂圖曼帝國。最矚目的例子是一戰期間,英國軍官——「阿拉伯的勞倫斯」(T. E. Lawrence)於1916-1918年間阿拉伯起義中,擔任英國聯略官的角色而聞名。這一場起義背後的意義,除了讓英國成功地在一戰時讓鄂圖曼帝國腹背受敵,更促進了阿拉伯民族主義的風潮,使當地人勇於在「突厥人」的異族政權中,解放過來。
整個中東殖民反抗史,正如著名歷史學家湯恩比(Arnold Joseph Toynbee) 所提出的「挑戰與回應」理論一樣——有人選擇固步自封,有人卻救亡心切,在危機中掙扎求存。阿富汗尼等人乃屬後者,知識分子們開啟了百家爭鳴的局面。其實,中國、印度等國家所面對的困境亦然,這種在亞洲人眼中的浩劫,迫使思想家們擺脫傳統框架,找出經世治國之道。
在這冷戰角力場上,埃及、敘利亞及伊拉克本來是親蘇聯陣營,隨後卻漸漸倒向美國陣營。例如,在1974年贖罪日戰爭(又稱第四次中東戰爭)後,以色列與敘利亞達成了協議,劃定了包括戈蘭高地的雙方國界,並維持至今;加上,在美國的斡旋下,1979年埃及與以色列達成了〈大衛營協定〉(Camp David Accords),簽訂和平條約——這種妥協,頓時讓一向與猶太民族為敵的阿拉伯民族主義,失去了道德高地。
庫特布之後,全球伊斯蘭主義迅速崛起,穆斯林身份凌駕國家身份。在八十年代,蘇聯入侵阿富汗,使阿富汗成為了來自五湖四海的聖戰者的溫床。不少受庫特布啟發的泛伊斯蘭主義者如賓拉登(Osama Bin Laden)及扎瓦希里(Ayman Al-Zawahiri)等等,從不同的中東國家遠赴阿富汗參加聖戰。這段期間,除了使他們產生一種超脫國家層面的身份認同,加劇了其宗教身份外,成功擊退蘇聯亦增加他們的氣焰,並把這種戰勝者的自信轉向對付西方,演變成恐怖主義並延續至今。
不要忘記阿拉伯之春的導火線,是突尼西亞一名小販自焚抗議警方騷擾,激起民憤,最後迫使總統班‧阿里(Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali)的政權垮台。敘利亞的處境亦然,在示威聲浪中,民眾高呼反對阿薩德的表弟拉米·馬赫盧夫(Rami Makhlouf)——當時金融時報指出,馬赫盧夫掌控了敘利亞六成的國家經濟,版圖橫跨電訊、基建與能源行業。
Mishra, Pankaj. 2012. From the ruins of empire: the revolt against the West and the remaking of Asia. London: Allen Lane.
LIU Zhongmin. 2007. A Review on the Relations between Nationalism and Islam in the Middle East. Arab World Studies;2007-03.
Zisser, Eyal. 2006. Who's afraid of Syrian nationalism? National and state identity in Syria. Middle Eastern Studies, 01 March 2006, Vol.42(2), p.179-198 [Peer Reviewed Journal]. Routledge
Why Bashar al-Assad is still in power?資料來源:半島電視台(2016.10.04 )
Naqvi, Ali Mohammed. 1985. Islam and nationalism. Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran: Islamic Propagation Organization.
Kissinger, Henry. 2014. World order. New York: Penguin Press.
最矚目的例子是一戰期間,英國軍官——「阿拉伯的勞倫斯」(T. E. Lawrence)於 1916-1918 年間阿拉伯起義中,擔任英國聯略官的角色而聞名。這一場起義背後的意義,除了讓英國成功地在一戰時讓鄂圖曼帝國腹背受敵,更促進了阿拉伯民族主義的風潮,使當地人勇於在「突厥人」的異族政權中,解放過來。
英國的軍官「阿拉伯的勞倫斯」(T. E. Lawrence)於 1916-1918 年間阿拉伯起義中,擔任英國聯略官的角色而聞名。(圖片來源:維基百科)
哈桑·薩吉瓦尼(Hassan Sajwani,見上圖)就是一個例子,他是一名阿聯酋宣傳員,被外交部用來培養與西方右翼的關係。他在 X 上非常活躍,因此在阿拉伯世界深受憎恨。這是因為他90% 的互動都是在證實西方保守派的信念,然後以某種方式將「是的,但阿聯酋是文明的、與眾不同的」強行塞進其中,以在西方右翼中建立親阿聯酋的正面情緒。
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