為什麼日本是19世紀西方以外唯一經歷現代化的國家？摩洛哥
日本在 19 世紀迅速實現現代化的能力是獨一無二的，因為它有一個強大的中央集權政府，
這取決於國家，但對於摩洛哥來說，這是歷史，然後是伊斯蘭教，然後是分裂
摩洛哥和日本表面上很相似。
- 這兩個王國都由某種神聖的君主統治。
- 兩個王國都將各自的君主視為傀儡
- 這兩個王國都擁有悠久的歷史，都有古老的貴族家庭和內戰時期
然而，摩洛哥和日本之間存在很大差異，因為明治維新始於日本貴族為東亞國家應走的道路而鬥爭，導致了一場短暫的內戰，支持改革的貴族贏得了勝利，並追求現代化道路，將歐洲思想融入日本社會。
那麼，如果摩洛哥在政治上與日本相似，為什麼它沒有自己的明治維新呢？
一）歷史
雖然在 2023 年這聽起來像是一個糟糕的笑話，但摩洛哥人認為 20 世紀之前的歐洲人不如他們。最快的解釋方式是兩位突尼斯總理：
- 侯賽因·霍賈 (Hussein Khodja) 是一名 18 世紀末被奴役的意大利人，被帶到突尼斯，並於 1822 年至 1829 年間擔任總理。
- 穆斯塔法·卡茲納達爾 (Mustapha Khaznadar) 是 1820 年代被奴役的希臘人，他在 1855 年至 1873 年間擔任總理。
卡茲納達爾的畫，當他爬上行列時，想像其他希臘奴隸在哪裡
注意日期並記住，儘管擔任總理，兩人仍然是奴隸（伊斯蘭奴隸制與西方奴隸制不同）。當這兩個奴隸爬上宮廷的台階並最終成為首相時，成千上萬的歐洲人仍然留在第一步。這是在幾個世紀的戰爭之後發生的，其中許多戰爭都是穆斯林獲勝的。每個摩洛哥人都知道他們統治了西班牙大約300年，並在幾次戰爭中擊敗了葡萄牙。每個摩洛哥人都知道 17 世紀中葉，奧斯曼帝國如何成功滲透到歐洲的心臟地帶。
這就是摩洛哥人拒絕任何歐洲優越論的原因。雖然摩洛哥在 18 世紀和 19 世紀初收到了奧斯曼帝國戰敗的消息，但這並不被視為厄運即將來臨的跡象，而是奧斯曼帝國不虔誠和軟弱的表現。摩洛哥長期以來一直將奧斯曼帝國視為競爭對手，因此對歐洲“可憐的奴隸”證明土耳其人不如阿拉伯人和柏柏爾人有能力這一事實感到高興。
許多歷史學家將 1830 年法國征服阿爾及利亞視為對歐洲威脅的警鐘，但事實並非如此。
- 1845 年，當法國在戰鬥中擊敗他的兒子時，摩洛哥蘇丹將認識到歐洲所構成的威脅
- 當 1859 年西班牙成功洗劫一座主要城市、摩洛哥在英國的干預下獲救時，整個摩洛哥精英階層都認識到了這一威脅。
1859 年戰爭後，西班牙軍官會見摩洛哥官員
雖然 1845 年的一次外交旅行帶來了對歐洲工廠的描述，但這還不足以給精英們（蘇丹）敲響警鐘，因為他們的主要問題是：“如果工廠這麼好，那我們為什麼還要奴役歐洲人？”
現在，這個時期確實有越來越多的摩洛哥人意識到伊斯蘭世界和歐洲之間的技術和經濟差距越來越大。1859 年的西班牙-摩洛哥戰爭為歐洲自卑觀念的棺材上釘下了最後一顆釘子。
那麼，當每個人都認為歐洲更優越並對蘇丹國構成威脅時，為什麼摩洛哥沒有在 1860 年實現明治復辟呢？
II）伊斯蘭教（可以這麼說）
雖然在現代，歐洲被視為一個獨特的大陸，但摩洛哥人卻並非如此。歐洲只是基督教的飛地。正是由於這個原因，摩洛哥人不說“歐洲”或“歐洲”之類的詞，而是說“基督教土地”和“基督教”。即使在今天，“西方”和“西方人”這兩個詞也只不過是“基督徒”的更禮貌的說法。
我指出這一點是因為與日本不同，摩洛哥認為自己陷入了與歐洲的意識形態鬥爭中。基督教與伊斯蘭教的衝突。
在摩洛哥精英和公眾眼中，採用歐洲概念的主張無異於叛國。採用公立學校系統等歐洲概念被視為承認基督教優越，伊斯蘭教低劣。因此，出於自豪感和身份認同的考慮，摩洛哥拒絕接受公立學校系統，儘管承認其好處。相反，它尋求穆斯林式的現代化，例如試圖建立清真寺學校系統，以獲得好處，但又不承認歐洲更好。
毛里塔尼亞男孩學習《古蘭經》，木板和鋼筆是伊斯蘭學校系統的一部分，該系統已經在摩洛哥帝國存在了數千年。19 世紀，蘇丹試圖對其進行大規模擴建，以作為歐洲公立學校系統的替代方案。
摩洛哥確實經歷了一些歐洲式的現代化，但這通常是由於歐洲的壓力，試圖獲得影響力，儘管歐洲人爭論它們的嚴肅程度。最好的例子是哈利·麥克萊恩。麥克萊恩是一位蘇格蘭貴族，曾在英國軍隊服役，然後於 1877 年移居摩洛哥。時至今日，他仍然是一個頗具爭議的人物。
麥克林是一位蘇格蘭貴族和基督徒，從 1877 年至 1912 年左右在摩洛哥皇家軍隊服役。麥克林首先在 1880 年代擔任教官，然後在 1890 年代和 1900 年代擔任將軍。
麥克萊恩穿著將軍的服裝，而摩洛哥貴族則穿著長袍，軍官則穿著褲子，因為穿長袍很難騎馬。
那麼，如果摩洛哥直到1860年才將歐洲視為嚴重威脅，然後決定追求穆斯林式的現代化，而不是日本所進行的受歐洲啟發的現代化，那麼為什麼摩洛哥仍然失敗了呢？
三）內部部門
日本經歷了一場短暫的內戰，幕府結束，新的政治秩序出現，使日本能夠在全國范圍內實行集權並遵循統一的政策。
摩洛哥蘇丹只能夢想像戊辛戰爭那樣的衝突，從而使摩洛哥政府集權。唉，摩洛哥基本上是一個由城邦、貴族階層和部落國家組成的聯盟，這些國家團結在一起，因為他們將蘇丹（伊斯蘭教先知穆罕默德的後裔）視為神聖人物。
事實上，摩洛哥經常被分為兩個：
- Bilad al-Makhzen（王室土地）：同意至少遵守蘇丹法律並納稅的城邦、貴族莊園和部落國家。
- Bilad al-Siba（無政府之地）：城邦、貴族莊園和部落國家嘲笑蘇丹是蘇丹的想法。這些國家同意接受蘇丹作為宗教人物，他是他們的哈里發，摩洛哥伊斯蘭教的教皇，僅此而已。他們沒有向他納稅，沒有提供軍隊，也拒絕接受任何命令。
拋開 Bilad al-Siba 不談，王室土地本身就存在嚴重分裂，因為我們談論的是大約一百個政體，而不是 2 或 3 個。蘇丹需要聚集並與之合作的有 100 多個酋長、貴族和城市重量級人物。雖然這些人在 1860 年就承認歐洲是一個威脅，但他們在如何應對方面存在分歧。三個快速案例：
- 阿拉伯貴族埃爾莫克里家族背叛了摩洛哥，並立即提出如果法國同意幫助埃爾莫克里家族在法庭上粉碎他們的敵人，他們就會為法國服務。
法國同意了，一家之主穆罕默德·莫克里 (Mohamed El Mokri) 在整個法國占領期間擔任摩洛哥首相！
穆罕默德·莫克里 (Mohamed El Mokri)，1912 年至 1956 年任摩洛哥首相，以表彰他對法國的忠誠服務
- El Glaoui 部落決定聯合 Bilad al-Makhzen 並試圖在 1905 年發動相當於戊辛戰爭的戰爭。他們不但沒有獲勝，反而導致了國家的崩潰。
- 里夫柏柏爾部落說：“忘記歐洲其他地區吧，我們為什麼不與西班牙作戰呢？” 並組建聯軍，未經蘇丹允許，兩次與西班牙開戰！
在兩次梅利利亞戰爭之一期間，西班牙砲兵轟炸里夫軍隊
現在你應該能明白為什麼摩洛哥的發展道路與眾不同了。
摩洛哥怎麼可能把奧斯曼帝國視為競爭對手呢？
英語中的摩洛哥或土耳其語中的非斯都是外來語，是外國人起的名字，但當地人自己並不使用。這是可以理解的，因為摩洛哥的阿拉伯語名稱是Malikiyya al-Maghrib或按字面翻譯為北非王國。
幾個世紀以來，出於各種原因，控制整個北非一直是一個目標，有些是意識形態的（柏柏爾穆斯林團結），有些是個人的（當你可以成為皇帝時為什麼要成為王子）。
奧斯曼帝國是一個輕描淡寫的障礙。我用形容競爭對手的話，摩洛哥的蘇丹們就會說是大敵。
It has to do with its internal politics. Perry's expedition and demand on open trade caused a series of events that led to the overthrow of the Tokugawa regime. The regime had put in place an effective check to its opponents who were waiting for the day to come out in the open to strike. It was no secret who did not like the Tokugawa regime. The overthrow gave the impetus for radical change.
Korea was a centralized monarchy that had seen better days beginning with 1800 it was ineffectively governed, corruption set in which impoverished the country. The important thing to note is that the regim
Morocco couldn’t, it needed France to modernize it
In 1844, Morocco and France went to war and a smaller French army thrashed a larger Moroccan army. Sultan Abdulrahman (r. 1822-1859) was no fool and knew that something had to explain why Morocco was defeated so easily. So he dispatched his personal secretary, Mohammed, to France with two goals:
- Negotiate peace
- Find out how France got so superior
Mohammed did as commanded and informed the Sultan of these really weird new things France was doing. To name 4 important ones:
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The biggest difference was that Japan was economically advanced during the 18th and 19th century, while Korea was a closed society and did not understand the importance of commerce and trade.
Middle age Japan was an agricultural society like Korea was. However, Japan started trading with the Netherlands in the early 17th century. This trade, while limited to the Netherlands, brought not only wealth but also European ideas and technologies to Japan. With the newly acquired wealth Japanese merchants started to gain power, to the point of threatening the old social hierarchy controlled by samurais
A2A.
There are already a lot of great, in-depth answers, so I will just make brief, bullet point remarks
- The Japanese people are extremely united. Conformity is highly stressed in their culture, so when the government ordered to modernize, most of the Japanese were on board. The Chinese were not at all united in the 19th century; the ruling imperial family were Manchus, but the majority were Han. Although racial tensions between Han and Manchu don’t exist anymore, they were very much alive back in the 19th century.
- Chinese lost the Opium War to Britain, and as a result, had to legalize opium. A s
I am a Vietnamese and I have been to Japan for some time. I don't think I know the full reasons for the success of Japan and the failure of Vietnam (and China and Korea), but I would like to provide at least some reasons based on my observations:
- Economic: Could it be that the fact that Japan was not as successful premodern state as Vietnam the reason for its easier acceptance of modernization? If I remember rightly, Vietnam was a Confucian country with full-fledged administration system from at least the 14th century, while Japan was, by the Edo period, still a feudal country divided into se
Japan had a very educated population. The Terakoya(literally temple school) system add greatly to the literacy rate of commoners. The samurai class and rich merchants were also willing to send their kids to school. Literacy rate of Japan before Meiji Restoration was over 50 percent.
Also, western knowledge had been spreading in Japan before Meiji Restoration in the form of Rangaku(literally knowledge about Netherlands). A lot of european books was passed into Japan by Dutch merchants. The Shogonate tried to suppress Rangaku but was forced to give up. Japanese were allowed to go to study in eu
- There are no traffic jam.
- The obesity level is very low.
- Voting level is at 100%
- All politicians was unanimously elected with 100% of the votes.
- Families share everything including prison time.
- North Korean have great night vision and do not require light.
- North Korea was voted the number one country in the world according to North Korea goverment.
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Now? Japan’s infrastructure is years ahead of t
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The single greatest contingent factor in Japan’s modernization was the rapid and comprehensive collapse of the Tokugawa Shogunate follo
I’ll try to cover as much influence as possible from the Tang, but I must explain what happened to these influences as both nations evolved. And because of this, it is impossible for me to avoid telling a little of their history and later development, so you should expect to read more than just the Tang period from my answer.
Classical Japan
Prince Shotoku flanked by younger brother (left: Prince Eguri) and first son (right: Prince Yamashiro), drawn by unknown author. [Wikipedia]
Tang China
The popularity of the yuanlingpao (圓領袍; round-collar pao) followed by the Sixteen Kingdom period came as a r
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