为什么日本是 19 世纪西方以外唯一经历现代化的国家?
这取决于国家,但对于摩洛哥来说,这是历史,然后是伊斯兰教,然后是分裂
摩洛哥和日本表面上相似。
- 这两个王国都由某种神圣的君主统治。
- 两个王国都认为他们的君主更像是一个有名无实的领袖
- 这两个王国都有悠久的历史,有古老的贵族家庭和内战时期
然而,摩洛哥和日本因明治维新而大相径庭,明治维新始于日本贵族为东亚民族应走的道路而斗争,导致了一场短暂的内战,支持改革的贵族赢得了胜利,并走上了适应欧洲的现代化道路。对日本社会的想法。
那么,如果摩洛哥在政治上与日本相似,为什么它没有自己的明治维新呢?
一)历史
虽然在 2023 年这听起来像是一个糟糕的笑话,但摩洛哥人在 20 世纪之前将欧洲人视为劣等人。最快的解释方式是两位突尼斯总理:
- 侯赛因·霍贾 (Hussein Khodja) 是 18 世纪末被奴役的意大利人,被带到突尼斯,并于 1822 年至 1829 年间担任总理。
- Mustapha Khaznadar 是 1820 年代被奴役的希腊人,他在 1855 年至 1873 年间担任总理。
Khaznadar 的绘画,当他爬上队伍时,想象一下其他希腊奴隶在哪里
请注意日期并记住,尽管他们是总理,但他们仍然是奴隶(伊斯兰奴隶制与西方奴隶制不同)。当这两个奴隶爬上皇室的台阶并最终成为首相时,成千上万的欧洲人仍留在第一步下。这是在几个世纪的战争之后发生的,其中许多战争是穆斯林获胜的。每个摩洛哥人都知道他们统治西班牙大约 300 年,并且在几次战争中击败了葡萄牙。每个摩洛哥人都知道,在 17 世纪中叶,奥斯曼帝国如何成功地渗透到欧洲的心脏地带。
这就是导致摩洛哥人拒绝任何欧洲优越感的原因。虽然摩洛哥在 18 世纪和 19 世纪初收到奥斯曼失败的消息,但这并不被视为厄运即将来临的迹象,而是奥斯曼不虔诚和软弱的标志。长期以来,摩洛哥一直将奥斯曼帝国视为竞争对手,因此很高兴看到欧洲的“可怜的奴隶”正在证明土耳其人不如阿拉伯人和柏柏尔人有能力。
许多历史学家将 1830 年法国对阿尔及利亚的征服视为欧洲所构成威胁的警钟,但事实并非如此。
- 1845 年,当法国在战斗中击败他的儿子时,摩洛哥苏丹意识到欧洲所构成的威胁
- 当西班牙在 1859 年成功洗劫一座主要城市,而摩洛哥因英国干预而获救时,整个摩洛哥精英将意识到这一威胁。
1859 年战争后西班牙军官会见摩洛哥官员
虽然 1845 年的一次外交旅行会带来对欧洲工厂的描述,但这还不足以给精英们敲响警钟(这是给苏丹的),因为他们的主要问题是:“如果工厂这么好,那我们怎么会还奴役欧洲人吗?”
现在这段时间确实看到越来越多的摩洛哥人意识到伊斯兰世界和欧洲之间的技术和经济差距越来越大。1859 年的西班牙-摩洛哥战争是欧洲自卑观念的最后一颗钉子。
那么,当每个人都认为欧洲优越并对苏丹国构成威胁时,为什么摩洛哥没有在 1860 年进行明治维新呢?
II)伊斯兰教(可以这么说)
虽然在现代,欧洲被视为一个大陆并且是独一无二的,但这并不是摩洛哥人真正的看法。欧洲只是基督教的飞地。出于这个原因,摩洛哥人不说“欧洲”或“欧洲”之类的词,而是说“基督教土地”和“基督教徒”。即使在今天,“西方”和“西方人”这两个词也只是表达“基督徒”的更礼貌的说法。
我指出这一点是因为与日本不同,摩洛哥认为自己陷入了与欧洲的意识形态斗争。基督教与伊斯兰教的冲突。
采纳欧洲理念的主张在摩洛哥精英和民众眼中无异于叛国。采纳公立学校制度等欧洲理念被视为承认基督教优越,伊斯兰教低劣。因此,出于自豪感和身份认同,摩洛哥拒绝了公立学校系统,尽管它认识到了好处。相反,它寻求穆斯林式的现代化,例如试图建立清真寺学校系统以获得好处,但又不承认欧洲更好。
毛里塔尼亚男孩学习古兰经,木板和笔是伊斯兰学校系统的一部分,该系统在摩洛哥帝国存在了数千年。苏丹试图在 19 世纪大力扩展它,以作为欧洲政府学校系统的替代方案。
摩洛哥确实看到了一些欧洲式的现代化,但这通常是由于欧洲试图获得影响力的压力,尽管欧洲人争论它们有多严重。最好的例子是哈里麦克莱恩。Mac-Lean 是一名苏格兰贵族,在 1877 年移居摩洛哥之前曾在英国军队服役。时至今日,他仍是一个有争议的人物。
麦克莱恩是苏格兰贵族和基督徒,从 1877 年到大约 1912 年在摩洛哥皇家军队服役。麦克莱恩在 1880 年代首先担任教官,然后在 1890 年代和 1900 年代担任将军。
麦克莱恩身着将军装束,而摩洛哥贵族则穿着 djellabas(长袍),而军官则穿着裤子,因为穿着长袍很难骑马。
因此,如果摩洛哥直到 1860 年才将欧洲视为严重威胁,然后决定追求穆斯林式的现代化而不是日本所进行的欧洲式现代化,那么摩洛哥为什么仍然失败了?
三)内部划分
日本打了一场短暂的内战,见证了幕府的终结,一种新的政治秩序出现了,使日本能够集权并在全国范围内遵循统一的政策。
摩洛哥苏丹只能梦想发生像戊辰战争这样的冲突,这种冲突会集中摩洛哥政府。可惜的是,摩洛哥基本上是一个由城邦、贵族阶层和部落国家组成的联盟,他们之所以联合起来,是因为他们视伊斯兰教先知穆罕默德的后裔苏丹为神圣人物。
事实上,摩洛哥经常被分成两部分:
- Bilad al-Makhzen(王室之地):同意至少遵守苏丹法律并纳税的城邦、贵族庄园和部落国家。
- Bilad al-Siba(无政府状态之地):嘲笑苏丹是苏丹的想法的城邦、贵族阶层和部落国家。这些国家同意接受苏丹作为宗教人物,他是他们的哈里发,摩洛哥伊斯兰教的教皇,仅此而已。他们没有向他纳税,没有提供军队,也拒绝接受任何命令。
撇开 Bilad al-Siba 不谈,王室土地本身就存在严重分歧,因为我们谈论的是大约 100 个政体,而不是 2 个或 3 个。苏丹需要聚集和合作的是 100 位左右的酋长、贵族和城市重量级人物和。虽然这些人在 1860 年将欧洲视为威胁,但他们在如何应对上意见不一。三个快速案例:
- El Mokri 家族,阿拉伯贵族,背叛了摩洛哥,并立即提出为法国服务,如果法国人同意帮助 El Mokri 在法庭上粉碎他们的敌人。
法国同意了,家族的首领穆罕默德·莫克里在整个法国占领期间担任摩洛哥首相!
Mohamed El Mokri,摩洛哥总理,1912 年至 1956 年,奖励他对法国的忠诚服务
- El Glaoui 部落决定联合 Bilad al-Makhzen,并试图在 1905 年发动一场 Boshin 战争。他们没有获胜,反而导致了国家的崩溃。
- Riffian Berber 部落“忘记欧洲其他地方,我们为什么不与西班牙作战?” 并在未经苏丹允许的情况下组建了一个与西班牙开战的联盟!
在两次梅利利亚战争中,西班牙大炮轰炸里夫军队
现在你应该能理解为什么摩洛哥的发展道路是不同的了。
摩洛哥不能,它需要法国使其现代化
1844 年,摩洛哥和法国开战,一支规模较小的法国军队击败了一支规模较大的摩洛哥军队。苏丹阿卜杜拉赫曼(在位 1822-1859 年)不是傻子,他知道必须要有一些东西来解释为什么摩洛哥如此容易被打败。因此,他派遣私人秘书穆罕默德前往法国,目的有两个:
- Negotiate peace
- Find out how France got so superior
Mohammed did as commanded and informed the Sultan of these really weird new things France was doing. To name 4 important ones:
- France had a centralized government where officials in Paris dictated policy t
China started the similar reform in the same time. But China sadly failed. People keep talking about this and debate this. 1 factor is always ignored. The reform was launched by Han Chinese confucians but the emperor and the ruling class were Manchus at that time. They simply didn’t trust those people who wanted to reform. I think people intentionally ignored it.
Let's take this point by point:
- China got hit first
Prior to the first Opium War, Japan under the Shogunate was even more isolationist and backward than China. But after learning of what happened in China, the Japanese were put on notice. The Meiji Restoration and the Boshin War would not have been possible without the Chinese example of "what will happen if you guys don't modernize". - The League of Extraordinary Gentle... errr... I mean samurai
Most people forget that the Meiji Restoration started as an ANTI-modernization movement. In fact, the anti-Shogunate alliance of the Shimazu and Mor

They did try to modernize, long before Japan did. Turkey and Egypt were modernizing in the beginning of the 1800’s. There are many reasons for why Japan was so successful, an important one was the fact that the Japanese were never colonized by the Europeans. Japan had little that attracted the Europeans, so it was left alone. This gave Japan the room to develop, lead by a ruling class with vision. Compare with Egypt, which under Muhammad Ali (not the boxer, ruled circa 1800–1850) modernized very quickly. Egypt was one of the first countries in the world to get railtracks, it had modern factori
Before answering the meat of the question I’ll have to refute Dimitris Almyrantis who in a highly upvoted answer wrote:
Only after the post-WW2 order created an ironclad alliance between Japan & the West against China did Western perceptions of Meiji Japan shift towards the better. Previously, they were seen much in the way Islamic countries are today.
Which is false and has the air of a “West rewrites the narrative in order to legitimize the new order” shtick. Not only was Meiji Japan recognized as modern by its contemporaries, it was looked up as a model by Muslim modernisers themselves.
Europe
A2A.
There are already a lot of great, in-depth answers, so I will just make brief, bullet point remarks
- The Japanese people are extremely united. Conformity is highly stressed in their culture, so when the government ordered to modernize, most of the Japanese were on board. The Chinese were not at all united in the 19th century; the ruling imperial family were Manchus, but the majority were Han. Although racial tensions between Han and Manchu don’t exist anymore, they were very much alive back in the 19th century.
- Chinese lost the Opium War to Britain, and as a result, had to legalize opium. A s
Sure. More than half a century before Japan instituted the Meiji reforms, under the Alavid reforms of the 1810s-30s Egypt had built up a domestic industry, a modern military, a colonial empire in Africa, and had created the first stirring of Arab nationalism and literature as an example for others to follow in the next century. Of course, the British empire smelled wealth and invaded, but that is not the product of a failed Egyptian state but of an overmighty British one. As is evident today, after being let go - and partitioned as a parting gesture - Egypt never quite recovered.
Turkey - large
It was a matter of timing and geography.
From the 1830s till the 1970s, China suffered an unbroken chain of natural and man-made calamities that would've crippled any nation.
Here's a short list of setbacks suffered by China from the 1830s onwards.
- 1839: First Opium War
- 1842: Treaty of Nanjing, Hong Kong lost.
- 1851-1864: Taiping Rebellion, 30 million dead, give or take.
- 1855: Third Bubonic Plague Pandemic.
- 1855-87: Punti Hakka Clan wars, 1 million dead.
- 1856-60: Second Opium War.
- 1856 -1873: Panthay Rebellion, 1 million dead.
- 1858: Treaty of Aigun, 600 thousand square miles ceded to Russia.
- 1858: Treat
注意:这是为了回应一个类似的问题而写的,这个问题被合并到这个问题中,但询问了 19 世纪中叶的不同反应,所以这个答案只关注对初始影响的反应。
具有讽刺意味的是,部分答案是清朝在遭遇西方势力时实际上处于良好状态。当然,仔细观察,从雍正和乾隆统治时期的鼎盛时期,确实有衰退的迹象,但中国仍然足够强大,足以支持一种自满和某种傲慢。中国肯定从外部借鉴了想法,

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