這個問題可以用兩種不同的方式來解釋。
一方面，答案主要是“是”，但另一方面，肯定是“否”。
1933 年 5 月 16 日，物理學家馬克斯·普朗克和阿道夫·希特勒就納粹德國境內猶太人的待遇問題舉行會談，前者懇求後者不要罷免他的同事，鋼鐵大臣對此作出回應：
“我沒有反對猶太人的意思。但是猶太人都是共產黨員，他們是我的敵人。我的生活與他們為敵。”
這種態度不僅限於希特勒的世界觀，許多其他高級國際政治家也有這種態度，包括英國首相阿瑟·貝爾福，他曾將猶太人描述為“身體”，以此來指責他們一視同仁。
他的信念最終導致英國官員通過了1905 年的《外國人法》，該法案被專門立法作為禁止東歐猶太人移民到英國的一種手段。
從父親的角度來看，卡爾·馬克思——被廣泛認為是現代共產主義之父——有猶太血統。
雖然這會使他在正統社區眼中失去猶太人的資格，但對於代表 1917 年至 1919 年間席捲東歐和中歐的革命的其他傑出成員而言，情況並非如此。
格里戈里·季諾維也夫 (Grigory Zinoviev)、列夫·加米涅夫 (Lev Kamenev) 和列昂·托洛茨基 (Leon Trotsky) 等名字是代表共產主義運動的布爾什維克黨的高級成員，還有更著名的名字，例如弗拉基米爾·列寧 (Vladimir Lenin) 和約瑟夫·斯大林 (Joseph Stalin)，一些歷史學家認為他們可能有他們的父係有猶太血統。
據估計，大約 20% 的高級布爾什維克領導人是猶太人，雖然這只佔少數，但在革命時期即將成為蘇聯的猶太人口總數不到 2%。
然後我們到了奧地利和德國，那裡具有猶太背景的高級成員的比例甚至比參加更成功的俄國革命的人還要多。
事實上，在德國和奧地利參加過類似政變的三位高級社會主義者和共產主義革命者——庫爾特·艾斯納、恩斯特·托勒和貝拉·昆——都有猶太血統。
在他們的下屬中，具有猶太血統的高級官員的比例明顯高於各自國家的總人口。
例如，在代表匈牙利革命的 19 名高級官員中，至少有 13 人——包括貝拉昆本人——有猶太血統。
匈牙利革命政府高級成員
在德國境內，兩次獨立的革命接二連三地發生。
第一個是由社會主義者庫爾特·艾斯納領導的，他的短命國家——巴伐利亞人民共和國——很快就被推翻了，後來才被以恩斯特·托勒為代表的更為強硬的共產主義運動所取代，其高級官員包括古斯塔夫Landauer 和 Erich Muhsam。
另一位名叫尤金·萊文的共產主義者——他有猶太血統——在他的新政權上台僅六天后就推翻了托勒並奪取了政府的控制權。
簡而言之，有大量證據表明猶太人確實在共產主義最初幾年的發展中發揮了至關重要的作用。
當涉及到一般人群時，答案就變得不那麼明確了——有時甚至與上述結論背道而馳。
即使在革命時代，共產主義政府——不成比例地由具有猶太背景的官員代表——已經制定了一個平台，該平台與後來在阿道夫希特勒領導下引入的任何東西一樣反猶太主義。
與普遍的看法相反，蘇聯共產黨人確實以種族背景為目標。
在列寧主義時代，特別是具有德國血統的蘇聯公民——與韃靼人和哈薩克人一起——通過飢荒、驅逐出境和大規模處決而被清洗，而在匈牙利，羅馬尼亞人也是如此。
儘管猶太人從來都不是主要目標，但在後來的幾年裡，那些身處納粹德國和蘇聯之間的人經常選擇居住在前者中，這一點意義重大。
貝拉·庫恩 (Bela Kun) 的政權將繼續發動數次反猶運動——可能在短短幾週內導致數百名匈牙利人死亡。
在匈牙利對羅馬尼亞的戰爭期間張貼了海報，將猶太人描繪成“和平主義者”，其中一個標題是：
“如果他們不為無產階級專政的神聖事業獻出生命，就消滅他們！” （共產主義黑皮書——第 274 頁）
蒂博爾·薩穆伊 (Tibor Szamuely) 建立了一支名為列寧男孩 (Lenin Boys) 的秘密警察，他們開始走訪匈牙利各地的村莊、城鎮和城市，監禁或處決任何被懷疑對新成立的匈牙利政權不忠的人。
儘管他是猶太人，但 Szamuely 仍然是鼓勵這些大屠殺的宣傳者之一。
有一次，他準備將一名猶太教授吊死在街燈柱上，結果這名男子 16 歲的男孩介入並稱 Szamuely 為“野獸”，因為他意識到他說的任何話都無法阻止他執行死刑。
Szamuely 當場殺死了這名少年。
大約在這個時候，為應對紅軍入侵他們的家園，大批波蘭難民——包括 5,000 名猶太人——進入匈牙利。
猶太人被特別命令交出所有個人物品，然後被毫不客氣地送回邊境。（共產主義黑皮書——第 274 頁）
亞瑟·科斯特勒 (Arthur Koestler) 是一名猶太少年，曾支持匈牙利革命，後來在晚年轉而反對共產主義。
據他估計，Szamuely 的秘密警察團伙在兩個月內處決了 500 多人，平均每天處決了 10 多人：
“我毫不懷疑匈牙利的共產主義會走上與俄羅斯模式相同的道路，並很快退化為極權主義的警察國家。但這種確定性，只是在很久以後才出現，並沒有使革命初期充滿希望的光輝歲月變得黯淡。” （共產主義黑皮書——第 274 頁）
據推測，許多最初支持共產主義運動的猶太人後來在親眼目睹它時表示反對，儘管當然無法進行可靠的調查。
在 1930 年代，斯大林在註意到納粹宣傳員約瑟夫·戈培爾公開暗示蘇聯獨裁者受猶太人奴役後，在各種公開審判和秘密處決中臭名昭著地清洗了他的大部分猶太官員。
這些行為發生後，約瑟夫·戈培爾大吃一驚，據說他命令他的下屬不要再提起這一指控。
前蘇聯獄警但澤·巴爾達耶夫 (Danzig Baldaev) 的畫作描繪了蘇聯官員因“猶太復國主義”而折磨一名猶太人
在 1939 年納粹和蘇聯聯合入侵波蘭期間，成千上萬的猶太人發現自己靠近新建立的邊界，雖然一些居住在西方的猶太人叛逃到蘇聯，但大多數人認為，在德國占領下的波蘭西部是更安全的選擇。
Thomas Buergenthal — one of the youngest Auschwitz survivors, and later, an international judge — had a father who was offered refuge with his family in Eastern Poland, only to outright decline upon hearing that the region was being annexed by the Soviet Union.
Meanwhile, Jews who found themselves stranded on strips of land along the Bug River between the two borders often died of starvation or weather exposure while deciding which side to defect to, with more than half ultimately choosing to return to the German border.
One Polish soldier of Jewish descent who was left on that strip of land during the winter of 1939–1940 before his captivity by the NKVD, later recounted his experience in these words:
“The territory was a sector of about 600-700 meters, where about 800 people had been stranded for several weeks. Ninety percent of them were Jews who had escaped from the Germans. We were ill and constantly damp from the incessant autumn rain, and we huddled together for warmth. The “humanitarian” Soviet border guards wouldn’t give us even a mouthful of bread or hot water. They didn’t even let through the peasants from the surrounding countryside, who were willing to help us stay alive. Many of us died there as a result… I can confirm that the people who went back home to the German side were right to do so, because the NKVD was no better than the Gestapo from any point of view. The only difference was that the Gestapo killed you more quickly, while the NKVD killed and tortured in a horribly long and slow way, so that anyone who survived all of this came out a broken man and was an invalid for the rest of his life.” (The Black Book of Communism — Page 317)
From within Eastern Poland, it was not unheard of for some Jews who had fled from German captivity to defect a second time to the West upon consuming their first taste of Soviet life.
“With the Germans, there is the threat of physical death, but here it is moral death. With the Germans, you don’t have to lie or conceal your thoughts.” — Anonymous Jewish Holocaust survivor
https://www.thejc.com/news/features/a-journey-to-the-gulag-and-back-1.509350
During the Soviet occupation of Eastern Poland, at least two million Polish families were deported to Siberia, alongside an unknown number who disappeared in Polish prisons, or were outright executed.
Among this number, it was reported that hundreds of thousands of Jews who declined Soviet citizenship — including Jews such as the Palestinian Julius Margolin, who happened to be in the country on temporary visa at the time of the invasion — were arrested or executed as traitors.
Those in the former group were quickly sent to local prisons or the gulags, while those who accepted were still kept in Soviet ghettoes that were reportedly harsher than those in the German occupation zone.
In comparison to these two prewar systems, Julius Margolin would later remark that before Operation Barbarossa, “the Jews preferred the German ghetto to Soviet equality”.
National Polish Jews who were not liquidated upon Soviet annexation were nonetheless barred from schools, and all Jewish literature banned, and Jewish shops foreclosed.
https://www.thejc.com/news/features/a-journey-to-the-gulag-and-back-1.509350
Despite Jews not being regarded as the Soviet Union’s main ideological enemy during the war years — this ominous honour belonged to ethnic Germans, Tatars, and Chechens, who were massacred or imprisoned wholesale — those who survived both the Holocaust and the Soviet gulags often reported that the latter penal system was the harsher of the two.
A Zek Remembers Stalin’s Camps
Review: Never forget the suffering and injustice of the gulag
North Korean gulags 'even worse' than Nazi camps, Auschwitz survivor says
Another Christian-converted Jew by the name of Richard Wurmbrand later made abundantly clear in his book, Tortured for Christ that when it came to being interrogated, Soviet officials were much crueler, with mutilation, burning, striking the soles of his feet until his flesh became raw, and being placed inside an ice box being only a sample of the torture he endured.
According to Chief Orthodox Rabbi Salomon Schonfeld — a medical doctor who reported Soviet Jews in liberated concentration camps facing deportation — a widely reported consensus reported in a December 1945 issue of The Herald Times was that Aushwitz was more “humane”. (YEAR ZERO: A History of 1945 by Ian Buruma — Page 161)
Another man by the name of Jaques Pats — a high-ranking human resource secretary who had originally been sent to investigate Nazi concentrate camps — reported that some 400,000 Jews (more than two-thirds) who were imprisoned by Soviet officials during the war had not survived.
According to the book, Stalin’s Secret War: The NKVD on the Eastern Front, it was commonplace for the NKVD secret police to bring captured Jews to a local cemetery and cover them in lime before burying them in lime.
During the opening days of Operation Barbarossa, a Jewish ghetto in Soviet-occupied Lutsk was massacred when as many as 4,000 prisoners were forced near a wall and machine-gunned.
When it was found that 370 had survived the first volley, they were ordered to bury the dead before they were themselves executed.
Hundreds of thousands of Soviet citizens were executed by the NKVD in the days immediately after Operation Barbarossa by various methods, including crucifixion, impalement, and disembowellement — while most of the victims were of German ethnicity, some 10% are believed to have been Jews
NKVD prisoner massacres - Wikipedia
After Warsaw was secured by the NKVD in early 1945, as many as 50,000 Jews were found alive within the capital, only to be subsequently purged for their involvement in the 1943 and 1944 uprisings — how many of them were killed as a result is unknown.
Regardless of the number of NKVD and senior Soviet officials who held privileged roles within the Stalinist Government, only a small percentage of Jews residing within the region financially benefited from this reality.
In a similar vein, Nazi Germany also had Jews such as Helmuth Wilberg, Erhard Milch, and Emil Maurice who served within Adolf Hitler’s closest circle, and yet the historical result showed a different result.
The same was as true with Stalin, who once regarded Jews as “bad soldiers”, and sought their eventual removal from Soviet society, despite employing the likes of Lazar Kaganovich and Soviet propagandist Ilya Ehrenberg within his ranks.
Long before the first shots of the Second World War were fired, Soviet officials had formally drawn up a plan to exile various groups of citizens who were deemed “non-Russian”; a policy that included the millions of Jews living within their domain.
On May 7, 1934, the “Jewish Autonomous Oblast” — a region located in southeastern Siberia — had been established as the first step towards removing the Jewish population from the rest of Soviet society.
Jewish Autonomous Oblast (Red)
Jewish Autonomous Oblast - Wikipedia
With the events of the Second World War forcing the Stalinist Regime to temporarily changing their list of priorities, the plan for Jewish deportation was temporarily aborted, but by late 1952, there was no doubt that Stalin fully intended to resume his original schedule.
His Jewish doctors were terminated from their employment after being accused of trying to poison him, which would then be followed by Stalin publicly revealing this to his countrymen — whom he expected to respond with outrage — before justifying the removal of Soviet Jews for “security reasons”.
Four vacant concentration camps had recently been created, and while there is no confirmation as to whom these prisons were intended for, most historians believe that within a short period of time, it would have been populated by Jewish prisoners.
Ultimately, Stalin died mere days after the Doctor’s Purge was carried out, and only days before he was to deliver his speech announcing the formal purging of Soviet Jews.
His death on March 5, 1953 was the only factor that prevented this design from becoming a reality.
CONCLUSION
The historical evidence is that there is little room for speculation that the early communist movement was heavily represented by Jewish politicians.
How many Jews actually supported the revolutions — and how many continued to do so even after reality had matured — is less evident.
What is clear, is that regardless of how many of them may or may not have supported the Stalinist Regime, far more of them chose to defect at the first opportunity, than to remain.
This next statement — as reported by a Jewish observer in the months after the war concluded — provides insight that leaves little doubt as to where the average Jew stood with the Soviet Union after the ceasefire came into effect:
“The 150,000 Jews who are today crossing the Soviet-Polish border are no longer interested in talking about the Soviet Union, the Socialist fatherland, dictatorship, or democracy. For them such disccusions are over, and their last word is this gesture of flight.” (The Black Book of Communism — Page 319)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
- The Black Book of Communism by Stephen Courtois
- Stalin’s War by Sean McMeekin
- Year Zero: A History of 1945 by an Buruma
- The Mitrokhin Archive by Vasili Mitrokhin
- Stalin’s Secret War: The NKVD on the Eastern Front by Rupert Butler
- A Lucky Child by Thomas Buergenthal
- Journey into the Land of the Zeks and Back by Julius Margolin
FURTHER READING:
Some of the people involved in articulating the idea of communism were Jewish. Many many more we're not.
While technically true, it's a highly anachronistic and weird way to frame Communism as a “Jewish movement". Plus, there is a lot of propaganda and disgusting Antisemitism associated with it.
After all:
- Karl Marx was ethnically Jewish
- Vladimir Lenin was ethnically Jewish (Although he didn't realize it in his lifetime)
- Leon Trotsky was ethnically Jewish
- The Bolsheviks were highly overepresented in their proportion of ethnic Jews.
So yes, ethnic Jews were very much overepresented in the early stages of Communism and Bolshevism.
However, and this is why it doesn't make sense to call communism a Jewish m
Remember:
There were 3 million Russian Jews.
There were maybe 300 Jewish Communists.
These Jewish Communists were not the representatives of the Jewish people.
Trotsky, Sverdlov, Zinoviev, Kaminev, Yagoda were the most powerful.
There is no problem with communism per se. Communism is a pretty benevolent and well-meaning idea (at least in theory). The problem is that it just doesn’t work in practice.
Have you ever been to a public restroom on a busy day? The chances are, the restroom was dirty, messy and just outright nasty. Why is that? Why don’t people keep the public restroom clean the way they maintain their own bathrooms at home? The answer is, because THEY DON’T OWN the public restroom.
That’s the problem with communism. In a system where nobody owns anything, where a janitor gets the same pay as a doctor and where
Moses Hess has been dubbed the “prophet of Communism and Zionism”., because in his writings he coined the basic concepts of both political movements, even though he did not construct a detailed ideology for either of them.
Unlike Marx, Hess was born into an Orthodox Jewish family, and was even trained as a rabbi. Thus, he was steeped in Judaism and Judaic culture, and his upbringing in a thoroughly Jewish environment must have had a decisive influence on the development of both his Communist and Zionist concepts.
Hess first developed his Communist ideas, which were essentially idealistic rather
Yes, essentially. Most famously, Marx, Lenin and Trotsky were all Jews. A large number of major supporters and developers of socialism and communism throughout history have been Jews. However, if what you're thinking is that communism is the invention of a Jewish conspiracy, then that's not true.
American-specific answer here:
We know racism exists.
We also know that only certain types of racism are considered “real racism” by the media, who amplify those rare instances because they fit the media’s agenda.
The usual argument I hear on progressive talk radio is that a non-white person in America can’t be racist, because to be racist, you have to have some sort of institutional power.
That’s a bunch of hypocritical, excuse-making crap.
I’ve been on the receiving end of racism. I had a Hispanic boss that hated me because I was white. There are areas of my city — Chicago — where I am not welcom
Well… technically yes. Just as the Nazis were right that a lot of 20th century physics ‘involved’ Jewish thought.
The conclusions they drew from these factual observations, however, were nonsensical.
They presented Bolshevism as some kind of Jewish conspiracy to take over and destroy the world, Western civilization in particular. This was one of the justifications for both the Holocaust and for the attack on the Soviet Union… with devastating consequences for the world, Western civilization in particular, and for Germany, too.
As to “Jewish physics”… They even tried to ban it. There was an entire
As has already been answered, the kibbutz is the world’s most successful example of communism. Jews are communal in many other ways, too, such as the need for at least 10 men (aka a minyan) for certain parts of the Jewish service (e.g. Kaddish, Kedusha and repetition of the Amida, Barchu, and the Torah reading), and Orthodox Jews relying on their rabbis more than on themselves for how to conduct themselves according to halacha (Jewish law).
Not to mention that Jews tend to live together more than just about any other ethnic group; this is explained only in part by the need for Orthodox Jews to
Nearly all people when together in a group start to behave according to the Communist principle of “from each according to ability to each according to their need”.
I say nearly all because there are dysfunctional types who need to be bully or arguably be bullied . S&M hasn't been part of any communist philosophy that I'm aware of.
So communism started when we were swinging around in trees, long before Jews were invented.
Well, I saw mostly wrong answers here so let’s clear the air. Hitler killed the Jews because he had convinced himself (and million of Germans) to buy into a crazy conspiracy theory about Jews conspiring to destroy Germany. That combined with the notion that Jews were sub-human and holding our species back led to the holocaust.
First some misconceptions.
- It was not about resources. The holocaust was mostly an effort to exterminate the Jews and it was a net negative overall on Germany’s pocketbook. They dedicated lots of manpower, oil, coal, steel, and logistical resources to killing the Jews and
說中國是共產主義國家，要么意味著你落伍了，被誤導了，要么就是試圖通過延續政治和歷史敘事來為你統治中國的權利辯護。
中共仍然獨攬大權，但這並不意味著它是“共產主義”的，而是專制的。
此時此刻，在我的公寓外，數十名中國農民工正在為我辛勤勞作。
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