這個問題可以用兩種不同的方式來解釋。
一方面，答案主要是“是”，但另一方面，肯定是“否”。
1933 年 5 月 16 日，物理學家馬克斯·普朗克和阿道夫·希特勒就納粹德國境內猶太人的待遇問題舉行會談，前者懇求後者不要罷免他的同事，鋼鐵大臣對此作出回應：
“我沒有反對猶太人的意思。但是猶太人都是共產黨員，他們是我的敵人。我的生活與他們為敵。”
這種態度不僅限於希特勒的世界觀，許多其他高級國際政治家也有這種態度，包括英國首相阿瑟·貝爾福，他曾將猶太人描述為“身體”，以此來指責他們一視同仁。
他的信念最終導致英國官員通過了1905 年的《外國人法》，該法案被專門立法作為禁止東歐猶太人移民到英國的一種手段。
從父親的角度來看，卡爾·馬克思——被廣泛認為是現代共產主義之父——有猶太血統。
雖然這會使他在正統社區眼中失去猶太人的資格，但對於代表 1917 年至 1919 年間席捲東歐和中歐的革命的其他傑出成員而言，情況並非如此。
格里戈里·季諾維也夫 (Grigory Zinoviev)、列夫·加米涅夫 (Lev Kamenev) 和列昂·托洛茨基 (Leon Trotsky) 等名字是代表共產主義運動的布爾什維克黨的高級成員，還有更著名的名字，例如弗拉基米爾·列寧 (Vladimir Lenin) 和約瑟夫·斯大林 (Joseph Stalin)，一些歷史學家認為他們可能有他們的父係有猶太血統。
據估計，大約 20% 的高級布爾什維克領導人是猶太人，雖然這只佔少數，但在革命時期即將成為蘇聯的猶太人口總數不到 2%。
然後我們到了奧地利和德國，那裡具有猶太背景的高級成員的比例甚至比參加更成功的俄國革命的人還要多。
事實上，在德國和奧地利參加過類似政變的三位高級社會主義者和共產主義革命者——庫爾特·艾斯納、恩斯特·托勒和貝拉·昆——都有猶太血統。
在他們的下屬中，具有猶太血統的高級官員的比例明顯高於各自國家的總人口。
例如，在代表匈牙利革命的 19 名高級官員中，至少有 13 人——包括貝拉昆本人——有猶太血統。
匈牙利革命政府高級成員
在德國境內，兩次獨立的革命接二連三地發生。
第一個是由社會主義者庫爾特·艾斯納領導的，他的短命國家——巴伐利亞人民共和國——很快就被推翻了，後來才被以恩斯特·托勒為代表的更為強硬的共產主義運動所取代，其高級官員包括古斯塔夫Landauer 和 Erich Muhsam。
另一位名叫尤金·萊文的共產主義者——他有猶太血統——在他的新政權上台僅六天后就推翻了托勒並奪取了政府的控制權。
簡而言之，有大量證據表明猶太人確實在共產主義最初幾年的發展中發揮了至關重要的作用。
當涉及到一般人群時，答案就變得不那麼明確了——有時甚至與上述結論背道而馳。
即使在革命時代，共產主義政府——不成比例地由具有猶太背景的官員代表——已經制定了一個平台，該平台與後來在阿道夫希特勒領導下引入的任何東西一樣反猶太主義。
與普遍的看法相反，蘇聯共產黨人確實以種族背景為目標。
在列寧主義時代，特別是具有德國血統的蘇聯公民——與韃靼人和哈薩克人一起——通過飢荒、驅逐出境和大規模處決而被清洗，而在匈牙利，羅馬尼亞人也是如此。
儘管猶太人從來都不是主要目標，但在後來的幾年裡，那些身處納粹德國和蘇聯之間的人經常選擇居住在前者中，這一點意義重大。
貝拉·庫恩 (Bela Kun) 的政權將繼續發動數次反猶運動——可能在短短幾週內導致數百名匈牙利人死亡。
在匈牙利對羅馬尼亞的戰爭期間張貼了海報，將猶太人描繪成“和平主義者”，其中一個標題是：
“如果他們不為無產階級專政的神聖事業獻出生命，就消滅他們！” （共產主義黑皮書——第 274 頁）
蒂博爾·薩穆伊 (Tibor Szamuely) 建立了一支名為列寧男孩 (Lenin Boys) 的秘密警察，他們開始走訪匈牙利各地的村莊、城鎮和城市，監禁或處決任何被懷疑對新成立的匈牙利政權不忠的人。
儘管他是猶太人，但 Szamuely 仍然是鼓勵這些大屠殺的宣傳者之一。
有一次，他準備將一名猶太教授吊死在街燈柱上，結果這名男子 16 歲的男孩介入並稱 Szamuely 為“野獸”，因為他意識到他說的任何話都無法阻止他執行死刑。
Szamuely 當場殺死了這名少年。
大約在這個時候，為應對紅軍入侵他們的家園，大批波蘭難民——包括 5,000 名猶太人——進入匈牙利。
猶太人被特別命令交出所有個人物品，然後被毫不客氣地送回邊境。（共產主義黑皮書——第 274 頁）
亞瑟·科斯特勒 (Arthur Koestler) 是一名猶太少年，曾支持匈牙利革命，後來在晚年轉而反對共產主義。
據他估計，Szamuely 的秘密警察團伙在兩個月內處決了 500 多人，平均每天處決了 10 多人：
“我毫不懷疑匈牙利的共產主義會走上與俄羅斯模式相同的道路，並很快退化為極權主義的警察國家。但這種確定性，只是在很久以後才出現，並沒有使革命初期充滿希望的光輝歲月變得黯淡。” （共產主義黑皮書——第 274 頁）
據推測，許多最初支持共產主義運動的猶太人後來在親眼目睹它時表示反對，儘管當然無法進行可靠的調查。
在 1930 年代，斯大林在註意到納粹宣傳員約瑟夫·戈培爾公開暗示蘇聯獨裁者受猶太人奴役後，在各種公開審判和秘密處決中臭名昭著地清洗了他的大部分猶太官員。
這些行為發生後，約瑟夫·戈培爾大吃一驚，據說他命令他的下屬不要再提起這一指控。
前蘇聯獄警但澤·巴爾達耶夫 (Danzig Baldaev) 的畫作描繪了蘇聯官員因“猶太復國主義”而折磨一名猶太人
在 1939 年納粹和蘇聯聯合入侵波蘭期間，成千上萬的猶太人發現自己靠近新建立的邊界，雖然一些居住在西方的猶太人叛逃到蘇聯，但大多數人認為，在德國占領下的波蘭西部是更安全的選擇。
托馬斯·比爾根塔爾——最年輕的奧斯威辛集中營倖存者之一，後來成為一名國際法官——的父親曾被邀請與家人一起在波蘭東部避難，但在聽說該地區被蘇聯吞併後，他徹底拒絕了。
與此同時，發現自己被困在兩國邊界之間佈格河沿岸狹長地帶的猶太人在決定叛逃到哪一邊時經常死於飢餓或暴露在天氣中，其中一半以上最終選擇返回德國邊境。
一名猶太血統的波蘭士兵在 1939 年至 1940 年的冬天被內務人民委員會俘虜之前被留在那片土地上，後來用這些話講述了他的經歷：
“該領土是一個約 600-700 米的區域，約有 800 人被困數週。其中百分之九十是從德國人手中逃出來的猶太人。連綿不斷的秋雨讓我們渾身濕漉漉的，我們擠在一起取暖。“人道主義”的蘇聯邊防軍連一口麵包或熱水都不給我們。他們甚至不讓周圍願意幫助我們活下去的農民通過。結果我們中的許多人死在那裡……我可以確認回到德國一方的人這樣做是正確的，因為從任何角度來看，NKVD 都不比蓋世太保好。唯一的區別是蓋世太保殺人更快，而內務人民委員部殺戮和折磨的方式又長又慢，（共產主義黑皮書 — 第 317 頁）
在波蘭東部，一些逃離德國囚禁的猶太人在第一次體驗蘇聯生活後第二次叛逃到西方並非聞所未聞。
“對於德國人來說，存在肉體死亡的威脅，但在這裡卻是道德死亡。和德國人在一起，你不必撒謊或隱藏你的想法。” ——匿名猶太大屠殺倖存者
https://www.thejc.com/news/features/a-journey-to-the-gulag-and-back-1.509350
在蘇聯佔領波蘭東部期間，至少有 200 萬波蘭家庭被驅逐到西伯利亞，還有不詳的一些人在波蘭監獄中失踪，或被直接處決。
據報導，在這一數字中，有數十萬拒絕加入蘇聯國籍的猶太人——包括巴勒斯坦人朱利葉斯·馬爾戈林 (Julius Margolin) 等猶太人，他在入侵時恰好持臨時簽證在該國——被逮捕或作為叛徒被處決.
前一組中的人很快被送往當地監獄或古拉格集中營，而那些接受的人仍被關押在蘇聯的隔都中，據說那裡比德國占領區的隔都更嚴酷。
與這兩個戰前製度相比，朱利葉斯·馬戈林後來評論說，在巴巴羅薩行動之前，“猶太人更喜歡德國的貧民區，而不是蘇聯的平等”。
沒有在蘇聯吞併時被清算的波蘭民族猶太人仍然被禁止進入學校，所有猶太文學被禁止，猶太商店被取消抵押品贖回權。
https://www.thejc.com/news/features/a-journey-to-the-gulag-and-back-1.509350
儘管猶太人在戰爭年代並未被視為蘇聯的主要意識形態敵人——這一不祥的榮譽屬於日耳曼人、韃靼人和車臣人，他們被大規模屠殺或監禁——但那些在大屠殺和蘇聯古拉格集中營中倖存下來的人經常報告說，後一種刑罰制度是兩者中較嚴厲的一種。
另一位皈依基督教的猶太人，名叫理查德·沃姆布蘭德，後來在他的書《為基督受折磨》中非常清楚地表明，當涉及到審訊時，蘇聯官員更加殘忍，肢解、灼燒、敲打他的腳底直到他的肉變得生硬，被放在冰盒裡只是他所忍受的酷刑的一個例子。
根據首席東正教拉比所羅門·舍恩費爾德——一名醫生，他報告了被解放的集中營中的蘇聯猶太人面臨被驅逐出境——1945 年 12 月的先驅時報報導的一個廣泛報導的共識是，奧斯維辛更“人道” 。（零年：Ian Buruma 的 1945 年曆史 — 第 161 頁）
另一位名叫 Jaques Pats 的人——一位最初被派去調查納粹集中營的高級人力資源部長——報告說，大約 400,000 名在戰爭期間被蘇聯官員監禁的猶太人（超過三分之二）沒有活下來了。
根據《斯大林的秘密戰爭：東線的內務人民委員部》一書，內務人民委員部秘密警察將被俘的猶太人帶到當地的墓地，用石灰覆蓋他們，然後用石灰將他們埋葬，這是司空見慣的事。
在巴巴羅薩行動開始的幾天裡，蘇聯佔領的盧茨克 (Lutsk) 的一個猶太人聚居區遭到屠殺，多達 4,000 名囚犯被迫靠近一堵牆並遭到機槍掃射。
當發現 370 人在第一次齊射中倖存下來時，他們被命令在死者被處決之前埋葬死者。
數十萬蘇聯公民在巴巴羅薩行動後的幾天內被內務人民委員部以各種方式處決，包括釘十字架、穿刺和剖腹——雖然大多數受害者是德國人，但據信約有 10% 是猶太人
在華沙於 1945 年初被內務人民委員會佔領後，在首都發現了多達 50,000 名活著的猶太人，但隨後因參與 1943 年和 1944 年的起義而被清洗——其中有多少人因此被殺尚不得而知。
無論內務人民委員部和在斯大林主義政府中擔任特權角色的蘇聯高級官員有多少，居住在該地區的猶太人中只有一小部分從這一現實中獲得經濟利益。
同樣，納粹德國也有赫爾穆特·威爾伯格、埃哈德·米爾奇和埃米爾·莫里斯等猶太人，他們在阿道夫·希特勒的最親密圈子裡服務，但歷史結果卻顯示出不同的結果。
斯大林也是如此，他曾將猶太人視為“壞士兵”，並尋求最終將他們趕出蘇聯社會，儘管他的隊伍中僱傭了拉扎爾·卡岡諾維奇和蘇聯宣傳員伊利亞·埃倫伯格等人。
早在第二次世界大戰的第一槍響起之前，蘇聯官員就已經正式製定了一項計劃，將被視為“非俄羅斯人”的各種公民群體流放；一項政策包括生活在他們領地內的數百萬猶太人。
1934 年 5 月 7 日，“猶太自治州”（位於西伯利亞東南部的一個地區）成立，作為將猶太人口從蘇聯社會其他部分移除的第一步。
猶太自治州（紅色）
隨著第二次世界大戰的事件迫使斯大林政權暫時改變他們的優先事項清單，驅逐猶太人的計劃暫時流產，但到 1952 年底，毫無疑問，斯大林完全打算恢復他原來的時間表。
他的猶太醫生在被指控試圖毒死他後被解僱，隨後斯大林向他的同胞公開透露了這一點——他希望他們做出憤怒的回應——然後為“安全原因”驅逐蘇聯猶太人辯護。 ”。
最近建立了四個空置的集中營，雖然沒有證實這些監獄是為誰準備的，但大多數歷史學家認為，在很短的時間內，這裡就會住滿猶太囚犯。
最終，斯大林在醫生的清洗進行後幾天就去世了，就在他發表講話宣布正式清洗蘇聯猶太人的前幾天。
他於 1953 年 3 月 5 日去世是阻止該設計成為現實的唯一因素。
結論
歷史證據表明，幾乎沒有理由推測早期共產主義運動主要由猶太政治家代表。
有多少猶太人真正支持革命——以及有多少人在現實成熟後繼續這樣做——不太明顯。
顯而易見的是，無論他們中有多少人支持或不支持斯大林主義政權，他們中的更多人一有機會就選擇叛逃，而不是留下來。
下一個聲明——正如一位猶太觀察員在戰爭結束後的幾個月裡所報導的那樣——提供了深刻的見解，毫無疑問地表明停火生效後普通猶太人與蘇聯的立場：
“今天跨越蘇波邊界的 150,000 名猶太人不再對談論蘇聯、社會主義祖國、獨裁或民主感興趣。對他們來說，這樣的討論已經結束，他們的最後一句話就是逃跑的姿態。” （共產主義黑皮書 — 第 319 頁）
參考書目
- 斯蒂芬庫爾圖瓦的共產主義黑皮書
- 肖恩·麥克米金的《斯大林的戰爭》
- 零年：1945 年的歷史by an Buruma
- 瓦西里·米特羅欣(Vasili Mitrokhin) 的米特羅欣檔案館
- 斯大林的秘密戰爭：東線的內務人民委員部作者：魯伯特·巴特勒
- 托馬斯·比爾根塔爾(Thomas Buergenthal) 的幸運兒
- Journey into the Land of the Zeks and Back 朱利葉斯·馬戈林 (Julius Margolin)
進一步閱讀：
是的，它是由猶太人發起的。我敢肯定，大多數猶太人都反對共產主義，因為他們中的大多數人都是資本主義的。但是你不能否認，當參與策劃布爾什維克革命的人都與猶太人有聯繫時，猶太人在共產主義的形成中發揮了重要作用。說這純屬巧合，似乎好得令人難以置信。
Was communism really started by Jews?
This question can be interpreted in two different ways.
On the one hand, the answer would be predominantly ‘yes’, but on the other, it would definitely be ‘no’.
In a May 16, 1933 meeting between the physicist Max Planck and Adolf Hitler regarding the treatment of Jews within Nazi Germany, the former had implored the latter not to remove his colleagues, to which the Iron Chancellor responded:
“I have nothing against the Jews. But the Jews are all Communists, and these are my enemies. My life is against them.”
The Age of Radiance
This attitude was not limited only to Hitler’s worldview, but that of many other high-ranking international politicians, including British Prime Minister Arthur Balfour, who once described Jews as “the Body” as a means of accusing them of acting in uniformity.
His beliefs eventually led to British officials passing the Aliens Act of 1905, which was specifically legislated as a means of barring Eastern European Jews from immigrating to the United Kingdom.
Aliens Act 1905 - Wikipedia
From his paternal side, Karl Marx — widely regarded as the father of modern communism — had Jewish ancestry.
While this would disqualify him as a Jew within the eyes of the orthodox community, this was not the case when it came to other prominent members who would represent the revolutions that swept Eastern and Central Europe between 1917–1919.
Names such as Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, and Leon Trotsky were among the senior members of the Bolshevik Party who came to represent the communist movement, as did more prominent names, such as Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin, whom some historians have suggested may have had Jewish roots on their paternal side.
Estimates are that around twenty percent of senior Bolshevik leaders were Jewish, and while this represented only a minority, the overall Jewish population within the soon-to-be Soviet Union during the revolutionary era was under 2%.
Then we get to Austria and Germany, where the percentage of senior members with Jewish backgrounds was even larger than those who took part in the more successful Russian Revolution.
In fact, all three senior socialist and communist revolutionaries who took part in a similar coup in Germany and Austria — Kurt Eisner, Ernst Toller, and Bela Kun — had Jewish ancestry.
Among their subordinates, the percentage of senior officials who had Jewish ancestry was significantly higher than the general population of their respective countries.
For instance, out of nineteen senior officials who represented the Hungarian Revolution, at least thirteen of them — including Bela Kun himself — had Jewish ancestry.
Senior members of the Hungarian Revolutionary Government
Within Germany, two separate revolutions took place in quick succession.
The first one was directed by the socialist Kurt Eisner, whose short-lived state — The People’s Republic of Bavaria — would be quickly toppled, only to be later succeeded by the far more hardliner communist movement represented by Ernst Toller, whose senior officials included Gustav Landauer and Erich Muhsam.
Just six days into his new regime, another communist by the name of Eugene Levin — himself of Jewish ancestry — overthrew Toller and seized control of the government.
In short summary, there is significant evidence to indicate that Jewish figures did indeed play a crucial role in the development of communism’s earliest years.
When it comes to the general population, the answer becomes less clear — sometimes even going in the opposite direction of the above conclusion.
Even during the revolutionary era, the communist governments — disproportionately represented by officials with Jewish backgrounds — had developed a platform that would be as Antisemitic as anything that would later be introduced under Adolf Hitler.
Contrary to popular belief, Soviet communists did in fact target people based on ethnic backgrounds.
During the Leninist era, Soviet citizens with German ancestry in particular — alongside Tatars and Kazakhs — were purged through famine, deportations, and mass executions, while in Hungary, the same applied to Romanians.
Even though Jews were never a primary target, it was significant enough that in later years, those who found themselves between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union frequently chose to reside within the former.
Bela Kun’s Regime would go on to wage several anti-Jewish campaigns — potentially resulting in the deaths of several hundred Hungarians within the span of only a few weeks.
Posters were set up during Hungary’s war against Romania portraying Jews as “pacifists”, with one caption reading:
“Exterminate them, if they won’t give their lives to the sacred cause of the dictatorship of the proletariat!” (The Black Book of Communism — Page 274)
Tibor Szamuely had established a secret police known as the Lenin Boys, who proceeded to descend on villages, towns, and cities all across Hungary to imprison or execute anybody who was even suspected of being disloyal to the newly established Hungarian Regime.
Despite his Jewish ethnicity, Szamuely was nonetheless one of the propagandists who encouraged these pogroms.
On one occasion, he was proceeding to execute a Jewish professor by hanging him on a street lamppost, only for the man’s sixteen-year-old boy to intervene and call Szamuely a “wild beast” upon realizing that nothing he said would prevent him from carrying out the death sentence.
Szamuely had the teenager killed on the spot.
At around this time, a flood of Polish refugees — including 5,000 Jews — entered Hungary in response to the Red Army’s invasion of their homeland.
The Jews were specifically ordered to give up all their personal belongings before being unceremoniously sent back across the border. (The Black Book of Communism — Page 274)
Arthur Koestler was a Jewish teenager who had supported the Hungarian Revolution before later turning against communism in his twilight years.
According to his estimates, Szamuely’s gang of secret police executed over five-hundred people within the span of two months — or upwards of ten in an average day:
“I have no doubt that communism in Hungary would have followed the same path as its Russian model, and soon degenerated into a totalitarian police state. But that certitude, which came only much later, does nothing to dim the glorious days of hope of the early days of the revolution.” (The Black Book of Communism — Page 274)
Presumably, a lot of Jews who had initially supported the communist movement later dissented upon witnessing it firsthand, though of course a reliable survey cannot be produced.
During the 1930s, Stalin notoriously purged most of his Jewish officials in various show trials and secret executions after it came to his attention that Nazi propagandist Joseph Goebbels had publicly suggested that the Soviet dictator was in servitude to the Jews.
After these acts were carried out, Joseph Goebbels was so taken aback that he reportedly ordered his subordinate never to bring this accusation up again.
Drawing by former Soviet prison guard Danzig Baldaev depicting Soviet officials torturing a Jew for his “Zionism”
During the joint Nazi-Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939, thousands of Jews found themselves near the newly established borders, and while some Jews residing in the West defected to the Soviet Union, the majority concluded that Western Poland, under German occupation, was the safer option.
Thomas Buergenthal — one of the youngest Auschwitz survivors, and later, an international judge — had a father who was offered refuge with his family in Eastern Poland, only to outright decline upon hearing that the region was being annexed by the Soviet Union.
Meanwhile, Jews who found themselves stranded on strips of land along the Bug River between the two borders often died of starvation or weather exposure while deciding which side to defect to, with more than half ultimately choosing to return to the German border.
One Polish soldier of Jewish descent who was left on that strip of land during the winter of 1939–1940 before his captivity by the NKVD, later recounted his experience in these words:
“The territory was a sector of about 600-700 meters, where about 800 people had been stranded for several weeks. Ninety percent of them were Jews who had escaped from the Germans. We were ill and constantly damp from the incessant autumn rain, and we huddled together for warmth. The “humanitarian” Soviet border guards wouldn’t give us even a mouthful of bread or hot water. They didn’t even let through the peasants from the surrounding countryside, who were willing to help us stay alive. Many of us died there as a result… I can confirm that the people who went back home to the German side were right to do so, because the NKVD was no better than the Gestapo from any point of view. The only difference was that the Gestapo killed you more quickly, while the NKVD killed and tortured in a horribly long and slow way, so that anyone who survived all of this came out a broken man and was an invalid for the rest of his life.” (The Black Book of Communism — Page 317)
From within Eastern Poland, it was not unheard of for some Jews who had fled from German captivity to defect a second time to the West upon consuming their first taste of Soviet life.
“With the Germans, there is the threat of physical death, but here it is moral death. With the Germans, you don’t have to lie or conceal your thoughts.” — Anonymous Jewish Holocaust survivor
https://www.thejc.com/news/features/a-journey-to-the-gulag-and-back-1.509350
During the Soviet occupation of Eastern Poland, at least two million Polish families were deported to Siberia, alongside an unknown number who disappeared in Polish prisons, or were outright executed.
Among this number, it was reported that hundreds of thousands of Jews who declined Soviet citizenship — including Jews such as the Palestinian Julius Margolin, who happened to be in the country on temporary visa at the time of the invasion — were arrested or executed as traitors.
Those in the former group were quickly sent to local prisons or the gulags, while those who accepted were still kept in Soviet ghettoes that were reportedly harsher than those in the German occupation zone.
In comparison to these two prewar systems, Julius Margolin would later remark that before Operation Barbarossa, “the Jews preferred the German ghetto to Soviet equality”.
National Polish Jews who were not liquidated upon Soviet annexation were nonetheless barred from schools, and all Jewish literature banned, and Jewish shops foreclosed.
https://www.thejc.com/news/features/a-journey-to-the-gulag-and-back-1.509350
Despite Jews not being regarded as the Soviet Union’s main ideological enemy during the war years — this ominous honour belonged to ethnic Germans, Tatars, and Chechens, who were massacred or imprisoned wholesale — those who survived both the Holocaust and the Soviet gulags often reported that the latter penal system was the harsher of the two.
A Zek Remembers Stalin’s Camps
Review: Never forget the suffering and injustice of the gulag
Gombin, Poland (Pages 83
North Korean gulags 'even worse' than Nazi camps, Auschwitz survivor says
Another Christian-converted Jew by the name of Richard Wurmbrand later made abundantly clear in his book, Tortured for Christ that when it came to being interrogated, Soviet officials were much crueler, with mutilation, burning, striking the soles of his feet until his flesh became raw, and being placed inside an ice box being only a sample of the torture he endured.
Richard Wurmbrand - Wikipedia
According to Chief Orthodox Rabbi Salomon Schonfeld — a medical doctor who reported Soviet Jews in liberated concentration camps facing deportation — a widely reported consensus reported in a December 1945 issue of The Herald Times was that Aushwitz was more “humane”. (YEAR ZERO: A History of 1945 by Ian Buruma — Page 161)
Another man by the name of Jaques Pats — a high-ranking human resource secretary who had originally been sent to investigate Nazi concentrate camps — reported that some 400,000 Jews (more than two-thirds) who were imprisoned by Soviet officials during the war had not survived.
According to the book, Stalin’s Secret War: The NKVD on the Eastern Front, it was commonplace for the NKVD secret police to bring captured Jews to a local cemetery and cover them in lime before burying them in lime.
During the opening days of Operation Barbarossa, a Jewish ghetto in Soviet-occupied Lutsk was massacred when as many as 4,000 prisoners were forced near a wall and machine-gunned.
When it was found that 370 had survived the first volley, they were ordered to bury the dead before they were themselves executed.
Hundreds of thousands of Soviet citizens were executed by the NKVD in the days immediately after Operation Barbarossa by various methods, including crucifixion, impalement, and disembowellement — while most of the victims were of German ethnicity, some 10% are believed to have been Jews
NKVD prisoner massacres - Wikipedia
After Warsaw was secured by the NKVD in early 1945, as many as 50,000 Jews were found alive within the capital, only to be subsequently purged for their involvement in the 1943 and 1944 uprisings — how many of them were killed as a result is unknown.
Regardless of the number of NKVD and senior Soviet officials who held privileged roles within the Stalinist Government, only a small percentage of Jews residing within the region financially benefited from this reality.
In a similar vein, Nazi Germany also had Jews such as Helmuth Wilberg, Erhard Milch, and Emil Maurice who served within Adolf Hitler’s closest circle, and yet the historical result showed a different result.
The same was as true with Stalin, who once regarded Jews as “bad soldiers”, and sought their eventual removal from Soviet society, despite employing the likes of Lazar Kaganovich and Soviet propagandist Ilya Ehrenberg within his ranks.
Long before the first shots of the Second World War were fired, Soviet officials had formally drawn up a plan to exile various groups of citizens who were deemed “non-Russian”; a policy that included the millions of Jews living within their domain.
On May 7, 1934, the “Jewish Autonomous Oblast” — a region located in southeastern Siberia — had been established as the first step towards removing the Jewish population from the rest of Soviet society.
Jewish Autonomous Oblast (Red)
Jewish Autonomous Oblast - Wikipedia
With the events of the Second World War forcing the Stalinist Regime to temporarily changing their list of priorities, the plan for Jewish deportation was temporarily aborted, but by late 1952, there was no doubt that Stalin fully intended to resume his original schedule.
His Jewish doctors were terminated from their employment after being accused of trying to poison him, which would then be followed by Stalin publicly revealing this to his countrymen — whom he expected to respond with outrage — before justifying the removal of Soviet Jews for “security reasons”.
Four vacant concentration camps had recently been created, and while there is no confirmation as to whom these prisons were intended for, most historians believe that within a short period of time, it would have been populated by Jewish prisoners.
Ultimately, Stalin died mere days after the Doctor’s Purge was carried out, and only days before he was to deliver his speech announcing the formal purging of Soviet Jews.
His death on March 5, 1953 was the only factor that prevented this design from becoming a reality.
CONCLUSION
The historical evidence is that there is little room for speculation that the early communist movement was heavily represented by Jewish politicians.
How many Jews actually supported the revolutions — and how many continued to do so even after reality had matured — is less evident.
What is clear, is that regardless of how many of them may or may not have supported the Stalinist Regime, far more of them chose to defect at the first opportunity, than to remain.
This next statement — as reported by a Jewish observer in the months after the war concluded — provides insight that leaves little doubt as to where the average Jew stood with the Soviet Union after the ceasefire came into effect:
“The 150,000 Jews who are today crossing the Soviet-Polish border are no longer interested in talking about the Soviet Union, the Socialist fatherland, dictatorship, or democracy. For them such disccusions are over, and their last word is this gesture of flight.” (The Black Book of Communism — Page 319)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The Black Book of Communism by Stephen Courtois
Stalin’s War by Sean McMeekin
Year Zero: A History of 1945 by an Buruma
The Mitrokhin Archive by Vasili Mitrokhin
Stalin’s Secret War: The NKVD on the Eastern Front by Rupert Butler
A Lucky Child by Thomas Buergenthal
Journey into the Land of the Zeks and Back by Julius Margolin
FURTHER READING:
David Frigault's answer to What evidence is there to back the Judeo-Bolshevism theory which states that Jews were behind the Russian revolution of 1917?
David Frigault's answer to How and why were the Jews persecuted in Nazi Germany?
What the hell is wrong with Quora’s bots auto-collapsing answers like yours? So much effort put into it only for a malfunctioning bot to remove it from the feeds of all those who would have enjoyed reading it…
If you don’t know why an answer like this has been taken down …you must be new here . The title alone draws the attention of mods / bots . You can’t discuss this subject
Even my newest answer regarding triangles is collapsed.
No joke.
Excellent summary. Much of what you describe is little known.
If you can believe it, the Quora police have auto-collapsed this answer — as they did yesterday’s article regarding Asperger’s Syndrome.
I suppose some people cannot accept reality.
Oh well, I have other platforms I can share my answers to.
Quora is no longer my sole go-to destination for this type of content.
I only stay in order to fight the Left and the Swamp. It's no longer fun.
I understand it when Quora doesn't want to lead readers to other sites, which happens when articles are shared. But yours is a bonafide answer to a question. Incomprehensible.
At this point I mostly stay as a motivation to answer certain questions I had in mind, so that when somebody in real life asks me a question, I can just point them over to my answers.
Enjoyed reading it !!! This is the charm of Quora platform
Thank you very much, Girija.
Glad you enjoyed it!
:)
Yes it was started by the Jews. I’m sure the majority of Jews are against Communism as the majority of them were capitalist. But you cant deny that Jews played a major role over the formation of communism when the people involved in the plotting of the Bolshevik Revolution all have Jewish connections to them. It seems too good to be true to say that it is a mere coincidence.
Did jews start communism?
Some of the people involved in articulating the idea of communism were Jewish. Many many more we're not.
Where/how did the claim/concept of Communism being a "Jewish invention" originate from?
Was communism Jewish?
Why did Hitler hate Communism?
While technically true, it's a highly anachronistic and weird way to frame Communism as a “Jewish movement". Plus, there is a lot of propaganda and disgusting Antisemitism associated with it.
After all:
Karl Marx was ethnically Jewish
Vladimir Lenin was ethnically Jewish (Although he didn't realize it in his lifetime)
Leon Trotsky was ethnically Jewish
The Bolsheviks were highly overepresented in their proportion of ethnic Jews.
So yes, ethnic Jews were very much overepresented in the early stages of Communism and Bolshevism.
However, and this is why it doesn't make sense to call communism a Jewish m
Who are the Jews that led to communism?
Remember:
There were 3 million Russian Jews.
There were maybe 300 Jewish Communists.
These Jewish Communists were not the representatives of the Jewish people.
Trotsky, Sverdlov, Zinoviev, Kaminev, Yagoda were the most powerful.
What was really the problem with communism?
There is no problem with communism per se. Communism is a pretty benevolent and well-meaning idea (at least in theory). The problem is that it just doesn’t work in practice.
Have you ever been to a public restroom on a busy day? The chances are, the restroom was dirty, messy and just outright nasty. Why is that? Why don’t people keep the public restroom clean the way they maintain their own bathrooms at home? The answer is, because THEY DON’T OWN the public restroom.
That’s the problem with communism. In a system where nobody owns anything, where a janitor gets the same pay as a doctor and where
Did the Jews invent communism?
Moses Hess has been dubbed the “prophet of Communism and Zionism”., because in his writings he coined the basic concepts of both political movements, even though he did not construct a detailed ideology for either of them.
Unlike Marx, Hess was born into an Orthodox Jewish family, and was even trained as a rabbi. Thus, he was steeped in Judaism and Judaic culture, and his upbringing in a thoroughly Jewish environment must have had a decisive influence on the development of both his Communist and Zionist concepts.
Hess first developed his Communist ideas, which were essentially idealistic rather
Did jews start communism?
Yes, essentially. Most famously, Marx, Lenin and Trotsky were all Jews. A large number of major supporters and developers of socialism and communism throughout history have been Jews. However, if what you're thinking is that communism is the invention of a Jewish conspiracy, then that's not true.
Do conservatives think that racism doesn't exist?
American-specific answer here:
We know racism exists.
We also know that only certain types of racism are considered “real racism” by the media, who amplify those rare instances because they fit the media’s agenda.
The usual argument I hear on progressive talk radio is that a non-white person in America can’t be racist, because to be racist, you have to have some sort of institutional power.
That’s a bunch of hypocritical, excuse-making crap.
I’ve been on the receiving end of racism. I had a Hispanic boss that hated me because I was white. There are areas of my city — Chicago — where I am not welcom
Was Hitler right that communism 'involved' Jewish thought?
Well… technically yes. Just as the Nazis were right that a lot of 20th century physics ‘involved’ Jewish thought.
The conclusions they drew from these factual observations, however, were nonsensical.
They presented Bolshevism as some kind of Jewish conspiracy to take over and destroy the world, Western civilization in particular. This was one of the justifications for both the Holocaust and for the attack on the Soviet Union… with devastating consequences for the world, Western civilization in particular, and for Germany, too.
As to “Jewish physics”… They even tried to ban it. There was an entire
Is there such a thing as Jewish communism? Are the Jews communal?
As has already been answered, the kibbutz is the world’s most successful example of communism. Jews are communal in many other ways, too, such as the need for at least 10 men (aka a minyan) for certain parts of the Jewish service (e.g. Kaddish, Kedusha and repetition of the Amida, Barchu, and the Torah reading), and Orthodox Jews relying on their rabbis more than on themselves for how to conduct themselves according to halacha (Jewish law).
Not to mention that Jews tend to live together more than just about any other ethnic group; this is explained only in part by the need for Orthodox Jews to
Did jews start communism?
Nearly all people when together in a group start to behave according to the Communist principle of “from each according to ability to each according to their need”.
I say nearly all because there are dysfunctional types who need to be bully or arguably be bullied . S&M hasn't been part of any communist philosophy that I'm aware of.
So communism started when we were swinging around in trees, long before Jews were invented.
Why did Adolf Hitler kill Jews?
Well, I saw mostly wrong answers here so let’s clear the air. Hitler killed the Jews because he had convinced himself (and million of Germans) to buy into a crazy conspiracy theory about Jews conspiring to destroy Germany. That combined with the notion that Jews were sub-human and holding our species back led to the holocaust.
First some misconceptions.
It was not about resources. The holocaust was mostly an effort to exterminate the Jews and it was a net negative overall on Germany’s pocketbook. They dedicated lots of manpower, oil, coal, steel, and logistical resources to killing the Jews and
What does it mean to say that China is a communist country? Does communism work? Is it working in China? How normal/abnormal is life in a communist country?
To say China is a communist country either means you are out-of-date, misinformed, or trying to maintain justification for your right to govern China by the continuation of a political and historical narrative.
The CCP still has a singular grip on power but this does not make it "communist," but authoritarian.
Outside my apartment at this very moment, tens of migrant Chinese workers are toiling to m
Where/how did the claim/concept of Communism being a "Jewish invention" originate from?
Was communism Jewish?
Why did Hitler hate Communism?
Was Hitler right that communism 'involved' Jewish thought?
Why did Adolf Hitler kill Jews?
Why did Hitler think the Jews were behind communism?
What is the link between Jews and communism?
If the Jews are white, why are there Ethiopian Jews?
Do Jews hate communism?
Why is communism called a failed ideology?
一些參與闡明共產主義思想的人是猶太人。還有很多我們不是。
雖然在技術上是正確的，但將共產主義定義為“猶太運動”是一種非常不合時宜和怪異的方式。此外，還有很多宣傳和與之相關的令人厭惡的反猶太主義。
畢竟：
- 卡爾·馬克思在種族上是猶太人
- Vladimir Lenin was ethnically Jewish (Although he didn't realize it in his lifetime)
- Leon Trotsky was ethnically Jewish
- The Bolsheviks were highly overepresented in their proportion of ethnic Jews.
So yes, ethnic Jews were very much overepresented in the early stages of Communism and Bolshevism.
However, and this is why it doesn't make sense to call communism a Jewish m
記住：
有 300 萬俄羅斯猶太人。
There were maybe 300 Jewish Communists.
These Jewish Communists were not the representatives of the Jewish people.
Trotsky, Sverdlov, Zinoviev, Kaminev, Yagoda were the most powerful.
There is no problem with communism per se. Communism is a pretty benevolent and well-meaning idea (at least in theory). The problem is that it just doesn’t work in practice.
Have you ever been to a public restroom on a busy day? The chances are, the restroom was dirty, messy and just outright nasty. Why is that? Why don’t people keep the public restroom clean the way they maintain their own bathrooms at home? The answer is, because THEY DON’T OWN the public restroom.
That’s the problem with communism. In a system where nobody owns anything, where a janitor gets the same pay as a doctor and where
Moses Hess has been dubbed the “prophet of Communism and Zionism”., because in his writings he coined the basic concepts of both political movements, even though he did not construct a detailed ideology for either of them.
Unlike Marx, Hess was born into an Orthodox Jewish family, and was even trained as a rabbi. Thus, he was steeped in Judaism and Judaic culture, and his upbringing in a thoroughly Jewish environment must have had a decisive influence on the development of both his Communist and Zionist concepts.
Hess first developed his Communist ideas, which were essentially idealistic rather
Yes, essentially. Most famously, Marx, Lenin and Trotsky were all Jews. A large number of major supporters and developers of socialism and communism throughout history have been Jews. However, if what you're thinking is that communism is the invention of a Jewish conspiracy, then that's not true.
American-specific answer here:
We know racism exists.
We also know that only certain types of racism are considered “real racism” by the media, who amplify those rare instances because they fit the media’s agenda.
The usual argument I hear on progressive talk radio is that a non-white person in America can’t be racist, because to be racist, you have to have some sort of institutional power.
That’s a bunch of hypocritical, excuse-making crap.
I’ve been on the receiving end of racism. I had a Hispanic boss that hated me because I was white. There are areas of my city — Chicago — where I am not welcom
Well… technically yes. Just as the Nazis were right that a lot of 20th century physics ‘involved’ Jewish thought.
The conclusions they drew from these factual observations, however, were nonsensical.
They presented Bolshevism as some kind of Jewish conspiracy to take over and destroy the world, Western civilization in particular. This was one of the justifications for both the Holocaust and for the attack on the Soviet Union… with devastating consequences for the world, Western civilization in particular, and for Germany, too.
As to “Jewish physics”… They even tried to ban it. There was an entire
As has already been answered, the kibbutz is the world’s most successful example of communism. Jews are communal in many other ways, too, such as the need for at least 10 men (aka a minyan) for certain parts of the Jewish service (e.g. Kaddish, Kedusha and repetition of the Amida, Barchu, and the Torah reading), and Orthodox Jews relying on their rabbis more than on themselves for how to conduct themselves according to halacha (Jewish law).
Not to mention that Jews tend to live together more than just about any other ethnic group; this is explained only in part by the need for Orthodox Jews to
Nearly all people when together in a group start to behave according to the Communist principle of “from each according to ability to each according to their need”.
I say nearly all because there are dysfunctional types who need to be bully or arguably be bullied . S&M hasn't been part of any communist philosophy that I'm aware of.
So communism started when we were swinging around in trees, long before Jews were invented.
Well, I saw mostly wrong answers here so let’s clear the air. Hitler killed the Jews because he had convinced himself (and million of Germans) to buy into a crazy conspiracy theory about Jews conspiring to destroy Germany. That combined with the notion that Jews were sub-human and holding our species back led to the holocaust.
First some misconceptions.
- It was not about resources. The holocaust was mostly an effort to exterminate the Jews and it was a net negative overall on Germany’s pocketbook. They dedicated lots of manpower, oil, coal, steel, and logistical resources to killing the Jews and
說中國是共產主義國家，要么意味著你落伍了，被誤導了，要么就是試圖通過延續政治和歷史敘事來為你統治中國的權利辯護。
中共仍然獨攬大權，但這並不意味著它是“共產主義”的，而是專制的。
此時此刻，在我的公寓外，數十名中國農民工正在為我辛勤勞作。
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