学生论文
大学简介
东京工业大学（Tokyo Institute of Technology，简称 "东京工业大学"）为埃及日本科技大学（Egypt Japan University of Science and Technology，简称 "E-JUST"）提供行政支持，该大学是埃及政府根据埃及和日本之间的双边协议于 2009 年在亚历山大市郊建立的一所研究生科技大学。该大学有八个专业。 该大学有八个系，东京理工参与管理其中的三个系：管理工程系、能源与资源工程系和环境工程系。 去年（2013 年）3 月初，我访问了这所大学，并在 4 天内举办了 8 场系列讲座，主要内容是日本科技史。 希望获得学分的学生需要选择一个与科技史相关的主题作为作业之一，并撰写相关报告。博士生 Noha Mostafa（目前是创新设计工程学院工业工程与系统管理系的二年级学生）非常热情，主动提出要撰写报告，并将其作为研究论文提交给合适的期刊。
穆罕默德-阿里（Muhammad Ali，17692-1849 年）是埃及近代史的主要人物。 Noha 试图从比较历史的角度来理解为什么埃及的现代化失败了，而日本的现代化成功了，尽管阿里的现代化比日本早开始了半个世纪。我还请她做一些编辑方面的同行评审。 她的论点仍然不能令人满意，课程期刊编辑部认为她的论点不能作为研究文章接受。 不过，她在短时间内做出了很大努力，论文水平有了很大提高。 因此，我们决定将她的努力作为 "学生论文 "收录，因为它与上述课程相关，是一篇优秀的学生报告。
梶雅範
十九世纪埃及的现代化： 与日本的比较
诺哈-莫斯塔法特
内容摘要
本文回顾了现代埃及最辉煌的时代之一。 那是穆罕默德-阿里-帕夏领导下的时代，他从 1805 年至 1848 年统治埃及。 本文阐述了现代科学是如何从欧洲传入埃及的。 主要研究问题是：如果埃及在 19 世纪上半叶就开始了现代化进程，比日本早得多，那么为什么埃及最终成为了一个发展中国家，而日本现在是世界上最发达的国家之一？ 将穆罕默德-阿里及其继任者统治时期埃及的现代化进程与 1868 年明治维新后日本的现代化进程进行比较，或许能提供一些线索。
1. 1. 引言
这项研究的动机来自东京工业大学 Masanori Kaji 教授的讲座。 这些讲座介绍了 1868 年明治维新后日本引进现代科学的历史（Kaji，2014 年）。 尽管早在明治时代之前，日本就已经开始引进西方科学，但只是通过民间自发进行，进展相当缓慢。 本研究的作者对日本在 1868 年后开始全面现代化这一事实感到惊讶。 之所以惊讶，是因为此时的埃及已经拥有了现代科学学院，对现代技术和新发明非常熟悉。 因此，在需要撰写论文时，作者决定选择被视为现代埃及奠基人的穆罕默德-阿里的时代。 论文的重点是埃及和日本引入现代化的情况，以及日本虽然在现代化进程中相对较晚，但却超越埃及的原因。
第 2 部分讨论了这部著作的独创性。
第 3 节介绍穆罕默德阿里的统治及其在建设现代埃及中的作用。
第 4 节介绍了他的继任者的表现。
第 5 部分讨论了日本在明治维新后引入现代化的情况。
第 6 部分对埃及和日本进行了比较，并讨论了导致前者衰落的原因。
导致前者衰落和后者发展的原因。
最后、第 7 部分得出结论。
2. 2. 调查
由于穆罕默德-阿里时代是埃及现代史上最重要的时期之一，因此有许多著作讨论了这一时期及其对埃及历史的影响。 事实上，穆罕默德-阿里及其继任者的统治不仅影响了埃及，还影响了许多其他国家，如英国、奥斯曼帝国以及中东和欧洲的其他地区，这也是许多西方研究者对这一主题感兴趣的原因。
日本的明治维新时代也是如此，它一直是许多研究者感兴趣的话题，因为它被认为是现代日本的开端。 然而，对于本文的主要研究关注点，即埃及和日本现代化之间的比较，以及目前两者之间差距背后的原因，作者未能找到关于这一特定观点的前人著作。 希望这项工作能推动今后对这一主题的研究。
3. 穆罕默德-阿里的崛起与现代埃及的建立 穆罕默德-阿里（1769-1849 年）是奥斯曼帝国军队中的一名阿尔巴尼亚指挥官，他于 1801 年加入了被派往埃及的军队，以驱逐 1798 年占领埃及的拿破仑-波拿巴率领的法国军队（Aharoni，2007 年）。 阿里利用法国撤军后埃及出现的权力真空所导致的无政府状态，加强了自己的部队，并赢得了公众的信任和支持。 1805 年，穆罕默德-阿里被埃及公众首领和宗教酋长推举为埃及统治者（哈桑，2000 年）。
夺取政权后不久，穆罕默德-阿里就开始了他雄心勃勃的计划，要在各个领域实现埃及的现代化。 人们可能会对穆罕默德-阿里的意图产生疑问，即他作为一个阿尔巴尼亚人，为什么对在埃及建立一个现代化国家感兴趣？ 答案很简单，在他原来的国家，阿里的最大抱负是成为一名军事领导人甚至部长。 但在埃及，他发现这是一个千载难逢的机会，他可以为自己和自己的继任者夺取权力，成为埃及这样一个富饶大国的统治者。 这一动机非常重要，将成为埃及案例与日本案例进行比较的一个重要因素。
拥有一支强大的军队是穆罕默德-阿里的首要和主要目标。 他建立了一支以欧洲军队为蓝本的现代化军队，在 1821 年至 1844 年期间建立了 12 所高等军事学校（El-Rafy，1989 年），并聘请外国军事专家培训军官和士兵。 埃及军队日益强大。 到 1839 年，穆罕默德-阿里称霸苏丹、阿拉伯半岛、希腊和叙利亚（Asante，2002 年）。 阿里不仅从欧洲进口武器，还开始在国内制造武器和建造船只。 为了服务于这些大规模的军事扩张，穆罕默德-阿里付出了巨大的努力来实现埃及的现代化；他的意图始终以军事为基础。 因此，当他在教育、经济和工业领域进行改革时，最初的动机是如何满足军队的需要。 然而，穆罕默德-阿里在埃及进行的改革是卓越的，对所有领域都产生了巨大影响。
穆罕默德-阿里最重要的贡献之一是他对教育和引进现代科学与文学的极大关注；他为此建立了许多初等和高等教育学校。 表 1 列出了已建立的民间高等学校和建立年份。 最初，学校的教授都是从欧洲（主要是法国）聘请的。
穆罕默德-阿里派遣埃及学生前往欧洲学习，获取不同科学和艺术领域的现代知识。
学习不同科学和艺术领域的现代知识。 早期的使团致力于学习
军事科学和造船。 之后，更多的使团被派往欧洲许多国家，特别是法国和英国（见下文）。
特别是法国和大不列颠（GB），学习广泛的科学和艺术领域。 规模最大、最重要的
最大和最重要的使团是 1826 年派往法国的使团（Silvera，1980 年）。 总计
传教团的总数为 9 个，包括 309 名学生（El-Rafy, 1989: 409）。 这些
从欧洲回来的学生领导了一场声势浩大的国家改革运动（亨特，1983 年）、
1983). 在他的时代，所有科学和艺术领域都有大量书籍被翻译出来（El-Rafy，1989 年）。
表 1 穆罕默德-阿里建立的民间高等学校名单（El-Rafy，1989 年）
学校
年份
工程学院
1816
医学院
1827
兽医学院
1828
药剂学院
1829
产科学院
1829
农学院
1833
布拉克第二工程学校
1834
金属学校
1834
阿尔松学校（语言和翻译）
1836
会计学校
1837
手工艺学校
1839
化学学院
1839
农业一直是埃及的基本经济活动；阿里知道，发展农业将是建设国家的核心，它可以满足军队的基本需求，还可以增加政府收入。 阿里建立了大量的堤坝、水坝和运河，采用了新的灌溉系统，引进了新的作物；这导致灌溉面积大幅增加（Marsot，1984 年）。
农业的巨大发展刺激了工业的发展。 1816 年，穆罕默德-阿里在埃及建立了第一家现代化工厂；这是一家使用机器的纺织厂，他请来了意大利技术人员来操作这些机器（El-Rafy，1989 年）。 除军工厂外，埃及还建立了多家现代化工厂，生产纺织品、金属制品、糖、肥皂、玻璃、蓝靛、纸张、蜡和制革。 这些工厂大多由外国人管理和经营；埃及工人被征召到这些工厂在类似军队的环境中工作。
虽然穆罕默德-阿里是在公众推荐下登上王位的，但他很快就成了埃及的专制统治者。 人民没有任何政治权利；政府实行中央集权，按照欧洲模式设立了多个部委。 穆罕默德-阿里在他忠实的手下中指派部长、省长和高级官员，他经常依靠非埃及人担任高级职位。
政府完全垄断了农业、工业和贸易。 政府控制着农作物的种植种类和数量，农民必须将农作物专门卖给政府。 所有大型工厂都归政府所有，对于小型工厂，政府垄断了产品的采购，然后将产品卖给当地商人或出口。 法尔松（Farsoun，1973 年）认为，这种制度使政府收入最大化，但对公众产生了负面影响；埃及工人和农民的社会和经济状况并不好。
4. 穆罕默德-阿里的继承者
穆罕默德-阿里于 1849 年 8 月去世，享年 80 岁。 在他去世前不久，他的儿子易卜拉欣-帕夏（Ibrahim Pasha）于 1848 年 7 月成为埃及的领袖。 然而，易卜拉欣于同年 11 月去世，其侄子阿巴斯-赫米一世继位。
阿巴斯执政约五年（1849-1854 年），对欧洲人和欧洲的创新深恶痛绝。
他关闭了许多由其祖父建立的机构，解雇了许多外国人，并缩小了军队规模。 他在位期间唯一的贡献是于 1851 年在埃及建立了第一条铁路（Overton，1971 年：96）。 阿巴斯于 1854 年去世，其叔父赛义德-帕夏继位，统治时间为 1854 年至 1863 年。 与阿巴斯不同，赛义德-帕夏曾在欧洲接受教育，是西方文明的崇拜者，并在埃及推行了许多社会改革。 他建立了一家电报公司和埃及第一家银行，他在位期间最重要的项目是开始挖掘苏伊士运河。
穆罕默德-阿里的孙子伊斯梅尔接替了赛义德-帕夏。 在位期间（1863-1879 年），伊斯梅尔坚持继续执行祖父的宏伟计划，使埃及跻身发达国家行列。 与祖父不同，伊斯梅尔是个心思细腻的人，他曾留学欧洲，对人权和民主制度有着深刻的认识。 从他 1879 年的一句话中可以窥见他的理念： "我的国家不再在非洲，我们现在是欧洲的一部分。 因此，我们自然要放弃以前的方式，采用适应我们社会条件的新制度"（Hunsdon，2013 年）。 伊斯梅尔也被称为 "伟大的伊斯梅尔"，他在位期间取得了巨大的成就。 "他和他的祖父一样具有远见卓识；他希望在数年内完成本应在数十年内完成的现实任务"（Overton，1971 年：98）。 伊斯梅尔自 1867 年起获得了 "赫迪夫"（Khedive，波斯语，意为统治者（Farag，2009 年））的称号。 他在位期间最重要的成就是：建立了第一个代表咨询委员会选举制度、妇女教育、建立和重新开放学校、向欧洲派遣教育使团、建筑业的进步、邮政服务的建立、铁路和基础设施的发展和建设、工业和农业的进步、废除奴隶制法律的发布、新闻业的进步、歌剧院和地理学会的建立以及苏伊士运河的开通。
不幸的是，由于这些重大项目几乎是在同一时间内完成的，而且由于伊斯梅尔赫迪夫倾向于为外宾提供福利和讨好外宾，埃及的财政出现了问题，随后它开始向欧洲借钱（Mukbil，2006 年）。 事实上，英国和法国等欧洲帝国主义国家感受到了伊斯梅尔及其未来前景的危险，因此他们鼓励伊斯梅尔接受更多贷款。 赫迪夫欠下了超过 9100 万英镑的国债，而他登基时只有 650 万英镑（Overton, 1971: 122）。 国际法庭做出了不利于赫迪夫的判决，他不得不在 1875 年将埃及和苏丹在苏伊士运河公司的股份出售给英国政府（Ogen，2008 年）；这是列强干涉埃及以及后来英国占领埃及（1882-1952 年）的直接借口。
5. 日本的现代化
前面的章节简要介绍了埃及在 1805 年至 1879 年期间的发展情况，现在让我们讨论一下日本的类似时期。 从 1603 年到 1867 年的江户时代（又称德川时代），日本与世界其他地区隔绝；国际贸易、移民和信息交流受到限制（Kaji，2014 年）。 这主要有两个原因：对殖民主义狂热的恐惧和对通常伴随贸易使团而来的基督教使团的恐惧。 尽管如此，从 18 世纪末开始出现了所谓的 "荷兰学习"（通过只专注于贸易的荷兰人学习西方文明），只有少数人能够接触到欧洲的科学和技术。 直到 19 世纪 50 年代，日本与西方世界的联系都非常有限（Gordon，2003 年）。
由于德川政权在政治和经济上接连失败，1868 年，一些武士精英恢复了明治天皇的权力，并对国家政治组织进行了重大改革（Morris-Suzuki，1994 年）。 这场运动的大多数领导人都是来自萨摩和长州的武士，他们希望摆脱德川家族，在日本开创一个新时代（Deal，2006 年）。 许多历史学家将明治维新描述为一场全面的革命；虽然它保留了天皇的王位，但却在各个领域引发了巨大的影响，是日本建立现代化国家的一个过渡点（戈登，2003 年）。
新政府一上台，就对国内进行了大刀阔斧的改革、
他们重新设计了地区长官的遴选方法，并对社会阶层进行了改革。 这并非易事，新政府面临着来自旧政权人物的阻力。 然而，在将近八年的时间里，旧政权完全并入了新政权（Gordon，2003）。 德川政权实施的闭关锁国政策结束了；新统治者认为
日本不能再与西方世界隔绝。 岩仓使节团（1871-1873 年）对日本的现代化产生了重大影响；50 名高级官员和大约 60 名学生被派往西方国家，他们在那里观察西方的最佳做法，建立了宝贵的外交关系，并展示了日本作为最文明的亚洲国家的光辉形象。 当使团成员返回日本后，他们的想法极大地促进了新的改革（Nish，1998 年）。 因此，与西方国家的贸易和关系变得更加开放。
日本在多个领域取得了发展：强大的军队、为所有儿童提供义务初等教育、学校和大学、电报线路、铁路网络和现代化工厂（Hane and Perez, 2013）。 进步并不总是一帆风顺的，明治政府面临着许多问题，他们的决策有时也会出现失误。 然而，经过约三十年的明治维新，到 19 世纪 90 年代，日本已成为一个经济实力雄厚的强国，在工业和贸易方面实现了转型。 它是第一个拥有工业和资本主义经济的非西方国家（Gordon，2003）。 日本在对华战争（1894-1895 年）和对俄战争（1904-1905 年）中取得胜利后，被西方世界视为强国（Lone and Towle, 1998）。
6. 现代化： 埃及与日本
本文的主要研究问题是，如果埃及比日本更早开始国家现代化，为什么埃及目前还是一个发展中国家，而日本却是世界上最发达的国家之一。 当然，这并没有单一的原因。
我们只想强调一些可能回答所提研究问题的要点。
6.1. 地理位置和人口统计
地理位置在埃及和日本的历史上都扮演着重要角色。
埃及位于世界的中心；连接亚洲、非洲和欧洲，还可俯瞰地中海，地中海可轻松连接欧洲和红海。
埃及位于世界的中心，连接亚洲、非洲和欧洲，俯瞰地中海，可轻松连接欧洲，红海连接亚洲和印度洋。 这种独特的地理位置
埃及的独特地理位置是一把双刃剑。
从积极的方面看，埃及一直向不同文化开放；从消极的方面看，埃及是帝国主义列强的传统诱惑。
在其漫长的历史中，埃及曾被多个国家殖民过，从罗马帝国开始，到英国占领为止。
在其漫长的历史中，埃及曾被多个国家殖民，从罗马帝国开始，到英国占领结束。 接二连三的占领使埃及难以启动
长期发展计划。
相反，日本是一个岛国，地处世界相对偏远的位置，对帝国主义列强的吸引力较小，事实上，欧洲船只在 15 世纪 40 年代之前还没有抵达日本（Gordon，2003 年）。 因此，当日本成为超级大国的时候，它的努力并没有受到阻碍，尽管日本在现代化方面是一个后来者，但它可以在几十年内迎头赶上。
两国的人口特征都发挥了重要作用。 表 2 列出了两国在 1804 年、1850 年和 1900 年的人口数量。 我们可以看到两国人口的巨大差异：日本的人口远远多于埃及，而日本的面积却小于埃及。 埃及和日本目前的面积分别为 100.145 万平方公里和 37.796 万平方公里（世界银行，2014 年）。 因此，日本的人口密度远高于埃及。
表 2 埃及和日本的人口
年份
埃及
日本
1804
3,956,189"
25,517,729
1846
4,476,439
26,907,625 b
1900
10,186,482
44,826,000°
a 麦卡锡（1976 年）
b Deal (2006)
C Menton 等人（2003 年）
虽然人口众多可能是一个问题，但在日本建设现代国家的过程中，人口密度大的居住区相对较少，这使得日本的人口密度相对较低。
但在日本建设现代国家的过程中，相对较少的居住区和较高的人口密度使其相对容易
在日本建设现代化国家的过程中，居住区相对较少而人口密度较大，这使得向全体人民传达新政权的理念相对容易，而且通信和交通也能覆盖整个国家地区。
通信和交通也能覆盖整个国家。 在埃及，幅员辽阔使得政府难以覆盖所有地方，通常只考虑开罗和亚历山大以及少数其他地区，一些农村或偏远地区的人民远离了在城市地区蓬勃发展的现代化努力。
另一个有趣的人口因素是受抚养人负担，这一指标取决于生育率，计算方法是将 14 岁以下或 65 岁以上的人口除以 15 至 64 岁的人口。 从 1865 年到 1900 年，日本的受扶养人负担远远低于埃及（Nafziger，1995 年）。 与埃及相比，这可能是日本快速发展的另一个因素。
6.2. 现代化背后的动机
一个不容忽视的事实是，虽然穆罕默德-阿里是现代埃及的创始人，但他是一个外国人，而不是土生土长的埃及人。 他的基本动机是为自己和他的王朝建立一个强大的王国。 国家的发展最初并不是为了人民的福祉，而是为了增强穆罕默德-阿里的权力。
在日本，新的明治领导人的动机是使国家强大，并解决德川政权的若干问题。 当然，他们也有争权夺利的个人野心，但这种野心总是与报效祖国的爱国精神相结合。
这些不同的动机非常重要，可以解释是什么影响了埃及和日本的进步。
6.3. 经济和政治观念
如上所述，穆罕默德-阿里和明治领导人在动机和背景上的差异反映在他们管理国家的方式上。 虽然穆罕默德-阿里统治时期的埃及与西方国家有关系，但阿里从未对西方国家过度兴奋。 相反，他与西方国家平等相待，把他们当作老师、培训师甚至技术人员，但他从不信任他们，也不允许他们在经济或国家政策中发挥作用（El-Rafy，1989 年）。 即使是在军事和教育等方面，他也从未完全模仿西方国家，而是按照自己的方式取长补短。
岩仓使团的成员之一木户幸仁用 "惊人"、"壮观 "和 "无法形容 "等词语描述了他在西方国家看到的一切（Gordon，2003 年）。 新政府在一切方面都采用了西式风格，甚至天皇和皇后的服装也是如此（Gordon，2003）。
然而，他们并不信任西方国家，始终担心殖民主义的危险。 为了避免依赖西方，他们采纳了德国的国家主导发展理念。 事实上，穆罕默德-阿里也是这样做的；阿里和明治政府都有帝国主义态度，因为他们都认为这是确保国家权力和独立的唯一途径。
因为他们都认为这是确保国家权力和独立的唯一途径。 在穆罕默德-阿里统治时期，垄断制度使私人投资者无法在经济中发挥作用。 虽然阿巴斯-赫勒密一世统治时期废除了垄断制度，但直到 20 世纪 20 年代，埃及都没有真正意义上的私人投资（Tignor，2010 年）。
明治政府鼓励私人投资，甚至在铁路等重要项目上。 从 19 世纪 80 年代起，私人投资在工业化中发挥了主导作用，并帮助日本经济蓬勃发展（Gordon，2003 年）。
6.4. 人民与国家的关系
人民的心理以及他们与国家和人民之间的互动因国而异。 埃及的自然特征：大面积的平原地带、尼罗河带来的稳定生活以及温和的气候，使人民倾向于维持和平的生活，即使这使他们对统治者逆来顺受。 许多统治者利用这种特性来利用人民，因为他们知道人民提出抗议的机会很少。 特别是，穆罕默德-阿里不相信埃及人，国家和军队中的高级职位都给了阿尔巴尼亚人、土耳其人和切尔克斯人（Tignor，2010 年）。 埃及人的工资很低。 在穆罕默德-阿里时代，国家人员的选拔首先基于他们对统治者的忠诚，然后才是他们的才能。
对于埃及人来说，尽管由于贫穷、不公正和缺乏公共权利，他们的生活条件并不令人满意，但他们认为自己的生活要比中世纪埃及军事种姓马穆鲁克统治下的生活好得多。 他们利用农业的发展，那些接受过教育的人能够拥有好的工作和更好的生活。
在穆罕默德-阿里及其继任者统治期间，人民没有提出严重抗议。 因此，埃及的民权运动在很长一段时间内进展缓慢，直到 20 世纪第二个十年才真正取得成效（Tignor，2010 年）、
日本是一个多山的国家，气候条件多变；这使得日本人民更加勤劳，也更加坚韧。 19 世纪上半叶，贫苦农民曾多次抗议当局（德川统治者），其中约 43% 的抗议具有侵略性，包括攻击富人、毁坏房屋和偷窃物品（Gordon，2003 年）。 虽然明治维新后这种攻击性行为相对减少，但抗议和骚乱仍持续了很长时间，原因也各不相同，如经济、国内和国际政策。
此外，数千年来，埃及人习惯于拥有绝对统治者。 在日本，天皇在历史上几乎没有政治权力，他们只扮演象征性和宗教性的角色，而其他人物则实际管理国家（Gordon，2003 年）。 与埃及的情况不同，明治领导人倾向于任命有才能的人担任要职，即使他们的级别不高；1867 年，他们推出了公务员考试制度，作为各部委和皇室国家的招聘标准（Gordon，2003 年）。 这种趋势鼓励人们努力发展自己，主要是通过教育，以获得这些职位的资格。
然而，一些明治领导人并不愿意建立民主政府或给予人民西方式的公共权利。 然而，从 1874 年起，民众权利团体、政治社团和政党开始出现，并提出了公民自由、新闻自由、国家宪法和代议制政府的诉求（Gordon，2003 年）。 起初，政府以严厉的法律来应对这些运动，但后来逐渐开始回应这些诉求。 1878 年，一个民选的县议会成立，随后在 1890 年，一个更强大的议会（称为国会）成立。 这些努力的结果是在 1889 年颁布了第一部宪法（Gordon，2003 年）。
在中日甲午战争（1894-1895 年）和日俄战争（1904-1905 年）期间，人民做出了承诺和牺牲，政府知道他们应该尊重人民的权利（Gordon, 2003）。 在随后的几十年中，记者、作家和妇女获得了更多的自由。
7. 结论
在穆罕默德-阿里-帕夏及其继任者统治的 19 世纪上半叶，埃及开始建立西式学校并引进现代科学。 例如，在 1816 年至 1839 年期间，埃及建立了 12 所高等学校。 此外，在此期间（1809-1847 年），有 300 多名学生被派往欧洲学习现代科学和艺术。 到 19 世纪 60 年代，埃及拥有了铁路、歌剧院、有组织的邮政和电报服务，以及其他现代学校和政府设施。 在同一时期，日本仍然是一个孤立的国家。 例如，东京第一所帝国大学成立于 1886 年（Gordon，2003 年），第一所工学院成立于 1871 年（Kaji，2014 年），比埃及第一所工学院的成立晚了 55 年。 此外，埃及在历史上比日本开放得多，日本在 19 世纪 50 年代之前一直与世隔绝。 然而，如今日本已成为世界上最发达的国家之一，而埃及仍是一个发展中国家，存在着许多问题。
19 世纪下半叶，工业革命从英国扩展到许多国家；这一时期也是科学和工业取得重大进展的时期，如化学、电气和机械工业（Wengenroth，2000 年）。 对于埃及来说，1849 年穆罕默德-阿里去世后，工业革命的发展开始消退。 他的继任者大多软弱无能，埃及的债务不断增加，1882 年英国占领埃及，这些因素都对埃及的发展和现代化产生了负面影响。 而日本在 1868 年明治维新后的现代化和改革过程中却没有遇到这些困难。
致谢
感谢东京工业大学的 Masanori Kaji 教授激发了我进行这项研究的灵感，同时也感谢他的指导和意见，使我的手稿有了很大的改进。
参考文献
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学生論文
A Student Essay
はじめに
東京工業大学は、エジプトと日本の2国間協定に基づきエジプト政府が2009年に、 アレクサンドリア郊外に設置した理工系の大学院大学 Egypt Japan University of Science and Technology (E-JUST エジプト日本科学技術大学)の運営支援をしている。大学に は8専攻があるが、そのうち東工大は、経営工学、エネルギー資源工学、環境工学の3 専攻の運営にかかわっている。私は、昨年(2013年) 3月初めに、同大学に行って4日 間に主として日本科学技術史をテーマに8回の連続講義を行った。単位取得を希望す る学生には、課題の1つとして科学技術史に関連するテーマを自由に選んでレポート を書くことを課した、受講生の一人,創造理工学類・経営工学専攻(School of Innovative Design Engineering, Dept. of Industrial Engineering and Systems Management) で 現在,博士課程二年生の Noha Mostafa は非常に熱心で、提出したレポートを発展させ て研究論文として適当な雑誌に投稿したいと申し出た。
エジプトの近代史には、ムハンマド・アリー (17692-1849) という特異な出自で強 権的にエジプトの上からの近代化を成し遂げようとした人物がいる. Nohaは、アリー による近代化が日本よりも半世紀も早く出発しながら、なぜエジプトの近代化が失敗 し、日本の近代化が成功したのか、比較史的な観点から解明しようとした、彼女とメ ールでやりとりをして、最初に提出されたレポートを何回か改稿してもらった、さら に、講座の雑誌編集部の査読もお願いした。彼女の論考はまだ十分とは言えず、講座 の雑誌編集委員会は、彼女の論考を研究論文として受理することはできないと結論し た。しかし、短期間に多大の努力をしてずいぶんと論考の水準は高まった。そこで、 彼女の努力を多として、講座とも上記のような関わりがあるので、優秀な学生レポー トという意味で「学生論文」としてここに掲載することにした。
梶雅範
The Modernization of Egypt in the Nineteenth Century: A Comparison with the Japanese Case
Noha Mostafat
Abstract
This paper reviews one of the brightest eras of modern Egypt. That was the age under the leadership of Muhammad Ali Pasha who ruled Egypt from 1805 to 1848. The paper illustrates how the modern science was introduced into Egypt from Europe. The main research question is: if Egypt started its modernization process in the first part of the 19th century, much earlier than Japan, why did it ended up as a developing country, while Japan is now one of the most developed countries in the world? A comparison between the modernization in Egypt during the reign of Muhammad Ali and his successors and in Japan after the Meiji restoration in 1868 may produce some clues.
1. Introduction
The motivation behind this research was the lectures given by Professor Masanori Kaji, from Tokyo Institute of Technology. These lectures introduced the history of modern science in Japan, which was introduced after the Meiji restoration in 1868 (Kaji, 2014). Even though the introduction of western science had already started long before the Meiji era, it was pursued only through private initiatives and its progress was rather slow. The author of this research was surprised by the fact that Japan started its full-fledged modernization after 1868. The wonderment was because by this time Egypt was already having faculties for modern science, and well-familiar with modern technology and new inventions. So, when it was required to write a paper, the author decided to select the age of Muhammad Ali, who is considered to be the founder of modern Egypt. The paper focuses on the introduction of modernization in Egypt and Japan, and why Japan surpassed Egypt although it was a relatively latecomer in the modernization process.
In section 2, the originality of this work is discussed. Section 3 describes Muhammad
Ali's reign and his role in building modern Egypt. Section 4 covers the performance of his
successors. Section 5 discusses the introduction of the modernization in Japan after the Meiji
restoration, and section 6 provides a comparison between Egypt and Japan and a discussion about
the reasons leading to the decline of the former and the development of the latter. Finally,
conclusions are drawn in section 7.
2. Survey
Since the era of Muhammad Ali is one of the most important periods in modern history of Egypt, there exist many works that discuss this period and its influences on the Egyptian history. Actually the reign of Muhammad Ali and his successors affected not only Egypt, but many other countries, such as Britain, the Ottoman Empire and other areas of the Middle East and Europe, that is why many western researchers were interested in this topic.
The same goes for the Meiji restoration era in Japan, it has been an interesting topic for many researchers as it is considered to be the start of modern Japan. However, for the main research concern of this paper; that is the comparison between the modernization in Egypt and Japan, and the reasons behind the current gap between them, the author could not find previous works on this specific point. Hopefully this work can motivate future research on investigating this topic.
3. The rise of Muhammad Ali and the foundation of modern Egypt Muhammad Ali (1769-1849) was an Albanian commander in the Ottoman army, he joined the forces that were sent to Egypt in 1801 to expel the French forces led by Napoléon Bonaparte that occupied Egypt in 1798 (Aharoni, 2007). Ali exploited the anarchy resulting from the power vacuum in Egypt after the French withdrawal to strengthen his troops and gain the trust and support of the public. In 1805, Muhammad Ali was placed as a ruler of Egypt by the Egyptian public chiefs and religious sheikhs (Hassan, 2000).
Shortly after he seized the power, Muhammad Ali started his ambitious plan to modernize Egypt in all fields. A question may arise regarding the intentions of Muhammad Ali, that is, why he, an Albanian, was interested in building a modern country in Egypt? The answer is simply that in his original country, Ali's furthermost ambition was to be a military leader or even a minister. But in Egypt, he found it a golden chance for him to seize the power for himself and his successors and be the ruler of a big and rich country like Egypt. This motivation is important and will be a significant factor in the comparison between the Egyptian case and the Japanese one.
Having a strong army was the first and main objective of Muhammad Ali, his expansionist attitude was clear from his first years. He built a modern army patterned to the European armies, twelve military higher schools were established in the period between 1821 and 1844 (El-Rafy, 1989) and foreign military experts were hired to train officers and soldiers. The Egyptian army grew stronger. By 1839, Muhammad Ali was dominating Sudan, the Arabian Peninsula, Greece, and Syria (Asante, 2002). Not only did Ali import weapons from Europe, but he started to manufacture weapons and build ships domestically. To serve these big military expansions, Muhammad Ali paid made great effort to modernize Egypt; his intentions were always military-based. So when he made reforms in education, economy and industry, he was initially motivated by how this would serve the army needs. Nevertheless, the reforms Muhammad Ali made in Egypt were exceptional and had a great effect on all fields.
One of the most important contributions of Muhammad Ali was his major concern about education and introduction of modern science and literature; he established many elementary and higher educational schools for this purpose. Table 1 provides a list of the established civil higher schools and the year of establishment. At the beginning, the professors were hired from Europe, mainly France.
Muhammad Ali sent Egyptian students to Europe to study and acquire the modern
knowledge in different fields of science and arts. The early missions were devoted to study
military science and ship building. After that, larger missions were sent to many European
countries, especially France and Great Britain (GB), to study broad fields of science and arts. The
largest and most significant mission was the mission to France in 1826 (Silvera, 1980). The total
number of missions was nine missions that included 309 students (El-Rafy, 1989: 409). The
students who came back from Europe led a huge movement in the reform of the country (Hunter,
1983). A large number books were translated in all the fields of science and arts in his era (El-Rafy, 1989).
Table 1 List of the established civil higher schools by Muhammad Ali (El-Rafy, 1989)
School
Year
School of Engineering
1816
School of Medicine
1827
School of Veterinary Medicine
1828
School of Pharmacy
1829
School of obstetrics
1829
School of Agriculture
1833
Second School of Engineering in Bulaq
1834
School of Metals
1834
School of Alsun (languages and translation)
1836
School of Accounting
1837
School of Crafts
1839
School of Chemistry
1839
Agriculture has been the basic economic activity in Egypt; Ali knew that the development of agriculture would be the nucleus of building the country, it would provide the basic needs of the army, and also increase the governmental revenues. A large number of barriers, dams and canals were established, new irrigation systems were adopted, and new crops were introduced; this led to a huge increase in the area of irrigated land (Marsot, 1984).
The great development in agriculture stimulated developments in industry. In 1816, Muhammad Ali established the first modern factory in Egypt; a textile factory that uses machines, and he brought Italian technicians to operate them (El-Rafy, 1989). In addition to the military factories, several modern factories were established to produce textiles, metals products, sugar, soap, glass, Indigo, paper, wax and tanning. Most of these factories were managed and operated by foreigners; the Egyptian workers were drafted to work in these factories in military-like environments.
Although Muhammad Ali took over the throne by public recommendation, he soon became an authoritarian ruler of Egypt. The people did not have any political rights; the government was centralized with a number of ministries according to a European pattern. Muhammad Ali assigned ministers, governors and top officials among his loyal men, and he often depended on non-Egyptians to hold the top positions.
The government kept a full monopoly on agriculture, industry and trade. The government controlled the type and quantity of crops to be planted, and peasants were obligated to sell the crops to the government exclusively. All the large factories were owned by the government, and for small factories, the government monopolized the purchase of the products, after that it can sell them to the local merchants or export them. This system maximized the governmental revenues, but had a negative effect on the public, according to Farsoun (1973); the social and economic conditions of the Egyptian workers and peasants were not good.
4. The successors of Muhammad Ali
Muhammad Ali passed away in August, 1849, at the age of 80. Shortly before his death, his son Ibrahim Pasha became the leader of Egypt in July, 1848. However, Ibrahim died in November of the same year and was succeeded by his nephew Abbas Helmy I. Abbas who ruled
for about five years (1849-1854) abhorred Europeans and European innovations, he closed many
institutions that were established by his grandfather, dismissed many foreigners from service and reduced the army size. The only contribution performed in his era was the establishment of the first railways in Egypt in 1851 (Overton, 1971: 96). Abbas died in 1854, and was succeeded by his uncle, Said Pasha who ruled from 1854 to 1863. Unlike Abbas, Said Pasha who was educated in Europe, was an admirer of the Western civilization, and introduced many social reforms in Egypt. He established a telegraph company, and the first bank in Egypt, and he most important project in his reign was the commencement of the digging of the Suez Canal.
Ismail, the grandson of Muhammad Ali, succeeded Said Pasha. During his reign (1863- 1879), Ismail insisted on continuing the ambitious projects of his grandfather to let Egypt become one of the developed countries. Unlike his grandfather, Ismail was a delicate man; he studied in Europe and got a strong sense about human rights and democratic systems. His philosophy can be glimpsed in a statement that he made in 1879: "My country is no longer in Africa; we are now part of Europe. It is therefore natural for us to abandon our former ways and to adopt a new system adapted to our social conditions" (Hunsdon, 2013). In his reign, Ismail, who was also called Ismail the magnificent, made huge achievements. "He was a visionary like his grandfather; he wished to accomplish in years what realistically should have evolved over decades" (Overton, 1971: 98). Ismail secured the title of 'Khedive' (a Persian word meaning ruler (Farag, 2009)) since 1867. The most important achievements of his reign were: the establishment of the first election system for the advisory council of representatives, women education, establishment and reopening of schools, sending educational missions to Europe, advances in architecture, establishment of post service, development and construction of railroad and infrastructure, advances in industry and agriculture, releasing the slavery abolition law, advances in press, establishing the opera house and the geographic society, and the inauguration of the Suez Canal.
Unfortunately, due to these major projects that were performed in almost the same time, and also because of the tendency of Khedive Ismail to welfare and impress the foreign guests, Egypt's finances failed and then it began to borrow money from Europe (Mukbil, 2006). Actually, European imperialist countries, such as Great Britain and France felt the danger of Ismail and his future prospects, so they encouraged Ismail to take more loans. A national debt of over £91 million sterling, as opposed to 6.5 million when he acceded to the throne, had been incurred by the Khedive (Overton, 1971: 122). Judgments were given against the Khedive in the international courts, and he had to sell the Egyptian and Sudanese shares in the Suez Canal Company in 1875. to the British government (Ogen, 2008); this was the direct pretense behind the intervention of the Great Powers in Egypt and later the English Occupation (1882-1952).
5. Modernization in Japan
The previous sections gave a brief description of the development of Egypt in the period from 1805 to 1879; now let us discuss a similar period in Japan. Through the Edo period (also known as the Tokugawa period) from 1603 to 1867, Japan was isolated from the rest of the world; there were restrictions on international trade, migration, and information exchange (Kaji, 2014). This was mainly due to two reasons; the fear of colonial avidity and the fear of the Christian missions that usually accompanied trade missions. Nevertheless, there was the so-called "Dutch Learning" (learning of western civilization through Dutch who focused only on trade) from the end of 18th century, only a limited number of people got access to European science and technology. Ties between Japan and the Western world were very limited till the 1850s (Gordon, 2003).
Due to successive political and economic failures of the Tokugawa regime, in 1868 some members of the Samurai elite restored Emperor Meiji to power and made big changes in the state political organization (Morris-Suzuki, 1994). Most leaders of this movement were Samurai from Satsuma and Choshu who wanted to get rid of the Tokugawa family and start a new era in Japan (Deal, 2006). Many historians describe the Meiji restoration as a plenary revolution; though it kept the Emperor on the throne but it triggered huge effects in all fields and was a transitional point towards the establishment of a modernized country in Japan (Gordon, 2003).
As soon as the new government took over the power, they made big domestic changes,
by redesigning the method of selecting regional governors and also developing modifications in the social classes' hierarchy. It was not an easy task and the new government faced resistance from figures of the old regime. However, in almost eight years the old regime was completely merged in the new one (Gordon, 2003). The seclusion imposed by the Tokugawa regime was ended; the new rulers believed that
Japan can be no more isolated from the Western world. The Iwakura mission (1871-1873) had a significant impact on the modernization of Japan; fifty high officials and about sixty students were sent to the Western countries where they observed the best practices from the West, made valuable diplomatic relationships, and presented a bright image of Japan as the most civilized Asian country. When the members of the mission returned to Japan, their ideas contributed greatly to the new reforms (Nish, 1998). Consequently, trade and relations with the Western countries became much more open.
Development took place in several fields: a strong army, a compulsory elementary education for all children, schools and universities, telegraph lines, railroad network, and modern factories (Hane and Perez, 2013). The progress was not always straightforward, the Meiji government faced many problems and their decisions were sometimes fumbler. However, by the 1890s after the Meiji restoration by about three decades, Japan became a powerful country with strong economy that made transformation in industry and trade. It was the first non-western country to have industrial and capitalist economy (Gordon, 2003). After the victories of Japan in the wars against China (1894-1895) and Russia (1904-1905), Japan was seen as a powerful country by the Western world (Lone and Towle, 1998).
6. Modernization: Egypt vs. Japan
The main research question of this paper was if Egypt started much earlier than Japan towards the modernization of the country, why it is currently a developing country, while Japan is one of the most developed countries in the world. Of course there is no single reason for this.
We just want to highlight some key points that may answer the posed research question.
6.1. Location and demographics
Location played a big role in the history of both Egypt and Japan; Egypt is in the heart of
the world; connecting Asia, Africa, and Europe, it also overlooks the Mediterranean Sea that
easily connects it to Europe and the Red Sea connecting it to Asia and the Indian Ocean. This
unique location was a double-edged sword; from the positive side Egypt has been always open to
different cultures, from the negative side Egypt was a traditional enticement for imperialistic
powers, through its long history Egypt was colonized by several powers starting from the Roman
Empire and ending by the British occupation. Successive occupations made it difficult to start
long-term development plans.
On the contrary, Japan being an island and in a relatively remote location of the world made it less attractive to the imperialistic powers, actually European ships did not arrive to Japan before the 1540s (Gordon, 2003). So when it was the time for Japan to be a superpower its efforts were not hindered, although Japan was a latecomer in modernization, it could catch up in a few decades.
The demographic characteristics played an important role in both countries. Table 2 provides the population in both countries in 1804, 1850, and 1900. One can see the huge difference between the populations in both countries; Japan has much more population than Egypt, meanwhile the area of Japan is less than the area of Egypt. The current areas of Egypt and Japan are 1,001,450 and 377,960 square kilometers, respectively (The World Bank, 2014). Hence, the population density in Japan is much more than that in Egypt.
Table 2 Population of Egypt and Japan
Year
Egypt
Japan
1804
3,956,189"
25,517,729
1846
4,476,439
26,907,625 b
1900
10,186,482
44,826,000°
a McCarthy (1976)
b Deal (2006)
C Menton et al. (2003)
Though large populations might be a problem, but during building a modern country in
Japan, the relatively few residential areas with large population density made it relatively easy to
convey the ideas of the new regime to all the people, also communications and transportation
could cover the whole country area. In Egypt, the large area made it harder for the government to reach all the places, usually Cairo and Alexandria and few other regions were considered, people in some rural or remote places stayed away from the modernization efforts that flourished in the urban areas.
Another interesting demographic factor is the dependency burden, this measure depends on the fertility rate and is calculated by dividing the population below 14 years or above 65 years to the population between 15 and 64. From 1865 to 1900 the dependency burden in Japan was much lower than this in Egypt (Nafziger, 1995). This might be another factor in the rapid development in Japan in comparison with Egypt.
6.2. Motivation behind modernization
One cannot ignore the fact that although Muhammad Ali is the founder of modern Egypt, he was a foreigner not a native Egyptian. His basic motivation was building a strong kingdom for himself and his dynasty. The development in the country was not originally meant to be for the welfare of the people, but for increasing the power of Muhammad Ali.
In Japan the new Meiji leaders were motivated by their desire to make their country powerful, and to fix the several problems of the Tokugawa regime. Of course they have personal ambition towards the power and the wealth, but this ambition was always combined with a patriotic spirit to serve their own country.
These different motivations are of great importance and explain what might have affected the progress in Egypt and Japan.
6.3. Economic and political concepts
As we mentioned above, the dissimilarity in motivation and background of Muhammad Ali and the Meiji leaders was reflected in how they managed their countries. Although Egypt in the reign of Muhammad Ali had relations with the Western countries, Ali was never overexcited about them. On the contrary, he was dealing with them on equal basis, and he used them as teachers, trainers and even technicians but he never trusted them or allowed them to have a role in the economy or the policy of the state (El-Rafy, 1989). He never fully imitated the Western countries even in aspects such as military and education, but he took what he wanted and applied it in his own way.
The Meiji leaders were very impressed with the Western countries, one of the members of the Iwakura mission, Kido Koin described what he observed in the Western countries with words like "astonishing," "magnificent," and "indescribable" (Gordon, 2003). The new government adopted the Western style in everything, even in the clothes of the emperor and the empress (Gordon, 2003).
Yet, they did not trust the Western countries and were always concerned about the danger of colonialism. To avoid depending on the West, they adopted the German philosophy of state- led development. Actually Muhammad Ali did the same; both Ali and the Meiji government had imperialistic attitudes, as they both thought that this is the only way to secure the power and
independence of their countries. During the reign of Muhammad Ali, the monopoly system made it impossible for private investors to take role in the economy. Although the monopoly system was abolished in the reign of Abbas Helmy I, there was no real private investment in Egypt till the 1920s (Tignor, 2010).
The Meiji government encouraged private investment, even in vital projects like the railroads. From the 1880s, private investment took the lead in industrialization and helped the Japanese economy to flourish (Gordon, 2003).
6.4. Relation between the people and the state
The psychology of the people and their interaction with the state and with each other vary from a country to another. The natural characteristics of Egypt; large areas of plain lands, the stability of the life by the Nile, and the moderate climate made the people tending to sustain a peaceful life even if it made them submissive towards their rulers. This nature was exploited by many rulers to use the people, knowing that chances that they may protest are rare. In particular, Muhammad Ali did not believe in the Egyptians, high positions in the state and the army were given to Albanians, Turks, and Circassians (Tignor, 2010). Egyptians were given low-wages. In the age of Muhammad Ali, the selection of the men of state was based first on their loyalty to the ruler, then to their talent.
For the Egyptians, although their conditions were not satisfying due to poverty, injustice and lack of public rights, they thought that their lives were much better than they were under the rule of the Mameluks, the military caste in medieval Egypt. They made use of the agricultural developments, and those who received education were able to have good jobs and better lives.
During the reign of Muhammad Ali and his successors, there were no serious protests from the people. Hence, the public rights movement in Egypt was slow for a very long time; it was not really effective till the second decade of the twentieth century (Tignor, 2010),
Japan is a mountainous country with varied climatic conditions; this made the people more hard workers and also more tough. Through the first half of the 1800s, the poor peasants made several protests against the authorities (the Tokugawa rulers), about 43% of these protests were aggressive, including attacks to the rich, destroying their houses and stealing some goods (Gordon, 2003). Though such aggressive behavior relatively decreased after the Meiji restoration, but protests and riots continued for a long time and for different reasons, such as economic, domestic and international policies.
Also, for thousands of years, Egyptians were used to have absolute rulers. In Japan, emperors historically had little political powers and they used to play a symbolic and religious role, while other figures actually manage the country (Gordon, 2003). Unlike the Egyptian case, the Meiji leaders tended towards appointing talented people to high positions, even if their ranks were modest; in 1867 they launched a system of civil service examinations to be the criteria for recruitments in the ministries and the imperial state (Gordon, 2003). This tendency encouraged the people to work on developing themselves, mainly through education, to be eligible for such positions.
Nevertheless, some of the Meiji leaders were not willing to have a democratic government or give people Western style public rights. However, from 1874 popular rights groups, political societies, and political parties started to appear and raise claims for civil liberties, freedom of the press, a national constitution, and a representative government (Gordon, 2003). In the beginning, the government faced such movements with stiff laws, but they gradually started to respond to these claims. In 1878, an elected prefectural assembly was established, and then in 1890, a stronger parliament (known as the Diet) was established. These efforts were crowned by launching the first constitution in 1889 (Gordon, 2003).
After the commitment and sacrifices made by the people during the Sino-Japanese war (1894-1895) and the Russo-Japanese war (1904-1905), the government knew that they should respect the rights of the people (Gordon, 2003). More freedom was given to journalists, writers and also for women through the following decades.
7. Conclusions
Egypt started establishing Western style schools and introducing modern science during the reign of Muhammad Ali Pasha and his successors during the first half of the 19th century. For example, in the period between 1816 and 1839, twelve higher educational schools were established. Also, during this period (1809-1847), more than 300 students were sent to Europe to study modern science and arts. By the 1860s Egypt had railways, an opera house, organized post and telegraph services, and other modern schools and governmental facilities. In the same period, Japan was still an isolated country. For example, the first imperial university in Tokyo was founded in 1886 (Gordon, 2003), and the first school of Engineering was founded in 1871 (Kaji,2014), that was 55 years after the foundation of the first school of engineering in Egypt. In addition Egypt was historically much more open to the world than Japan which was secluded till the 1850s. However, nowadays Japan is one of the most developed countries in the world, while Egypt is still a developing country that suffers from many problems.
The second half of the 19th century witnessed the spread of the industrial revolution from Britain to many countries; it was, also, a time for important advances in science and industries,such as chemical, electrical and mechanical industries (Wengenroth, 2000). For Egypt, the developments started to fade out after the death of Muhammad Ali in 1849. The weakness of most of his successors, the increasing debts that Egypt got involved in, and the British occupation in 1882 are some of factors that had a negative effect on the development and modernization of Egypt. In Japan did not face such difficulties during its modernization and reforms after the Meiji restoration in 1868.
Acknowledgement
I thank Professor Masanori Kaji from Tokyo Institute of Technology for the inspiration to do this research, and also the guidance and comments that greatly improved the manuscript.
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