https://www.commentary.org/articles/walter-laqueur/a-postscript-on-finlandization/
芬兰化 "一词--指的是在与蘇聯保持友好关系的外衣下的那个过程或状态。
作者:沃尔特-Z-拉奎尔
尽管赫尔辛基、赫尔辛基的西方支持者、俄罗斯人和一些美国新孤立主义者提出抗议,但 "芬兰化 "一词--指的是在与苏联保持友好关系的外衣下,一个国家的主权被削弱的过程或状态--已经进入政治词典。每当地理术语获得政治含义时,都有一个不公正的因素--并非拜占庭的所有东西都是拜占庭的,并非黎凡特的所有东西都是黎凡特的,并非上海的所有人都是上海人,如果巴尔干半岛被巴尔干化,那主要是外部势力的错。无论如何,"芬兰化 "在这里停留:它已经成为文章、书籍、甚至博士论文的主题。
虽然这个词是最近才出现的,但它的起源却并不确定。据称这一现象最早是由奥地利外交部长卡尔-格鲁伯在1953年描述的,他警告他的政府不要效仿芬兰的做法。然而,他实际上并没有创造这个词。理查德-洛温塔尔教授在1974年接受《时代》杂志采访时说,他可能是在1966年的某个时候第一次使用这个词,当时华沙条约国在布加勒斯特的会议上建议解散所有军事集团。随后,皮埃尔-哈斯纳、我和许多其他作家都使用了这个词。
当然,谈论芬兰化被认为是非常令人反感的,并有损于芬兰本身的国家威望。但外部观察家也对使用这个词提出了警告。一些人认为,它传达了对芬兰真实情况的错误描述。另一些人则认为,芬兰是一个独特的案例,将这个词用于其他国家会产生误导。还有人声称,芬兰化的进程并不值得谴责,而是一种积极的现象,值得效仿。最后,一些乐观主义者表示相信,无论如何,到目前为止,西欧对芬兰化没有什么可担心的,当然比俄罗斯的东欧卫星国要少。
由于西方国家对芬兰本身知之甚少,因而对其为其他国家提供的榜样也知之甚少,这使得处理芬兰化现象变得更加困难。赫尔辛基没有系统的新闻报道,现有的芬兰语以外的学术文献也不多;这些文献也不完全可靠,因为芬兰国内实行的自我审查制度已经影响了西方国家的出版物。
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关于芬兰化的后记
20世纪70年代,"芬兰化 "一词进入了政治词典,并一度成为争论的主要焦点。
作者:Walter Z. Laqueur
20世纪70年代,"芬兰化 "一词进入政治词典,并一度成为争论的主要焦点。这个词指的是芬兰和苏联之间的特殊关系:简而言之,它意味着芬兰对其强大邻国的绥靖,以至于该国不再被定义为传统意义上的中立和独立。在芬兰没有苏联的审查制度,但在恐惧和焦虑的驱使下,有芬兰的自我审查制度,而且非常愿意默许苏联的愿望。
由于对这个话题感兴趣,我访问了芬兰,并阅读了当时以芬兰语以外的语言提供的所有资料。1977年12月,我的一篇文章《芬兰化的幽灵》出现在《评论》上。这篇文章在语气上力争做到有分寸;我承认,鉴于芬兰的地缘政治状况,显然必须对苏联做出某些让步。但我也认为,担任了25年芬兰总统(1956-81年)的乌尔霍-凯科宁把这种趋势带得太远了(尽管他本人不是共产党人,甚至不是社会主义者)。这不是凯科宁和他的支持者所宣称的明智、成熟和负责任的政策,而且它为欧洲其他国家树立了一个坏榜样。
"芬兰化的幽灵 "在芬兰本身和斯堪的纳维亚半岛的其他地方被广泛评论。那里的反应是好坏参半。一些人认为这篇文章消息灵通,另一些人则谴责它无知,还有一些人认为 "拉奎尔 "是一位美国高级官员的假名。然而,具有讽刺意味的是,大多数芬兰评论员--他们熟悉自己国家的真实情况--在为芬兰化辩护时远没有凯科宁在西方的一些支持者那么激烈。
因此,《华盛顿邮报》的一位评论员认为,芬兰是大多数欧洲人想去的地方。美国著名的外交家和历史学家乔治-F-肯南在一本名为《危险的云》的书中赞扬了芬兰人--也就是凯科宁的政策--因为他们的 "冷静和坚定",并反对 "芬兰化 "一词的普遍使用,认为它意味着某种屈辱和无骨气。副总统沃尔特-蒙代尔在赫尔辛基发言时说,这个词干扰了准确的沟通,因为它 "充满了情感"。一位以色列政治学教授称芬兰是未来的典范,是 "解决一个孤立的小国与一个伟大的军事强国之间所面临的问题的办法"。
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1981年,年事已高的凯科宁退休或被迫退休。他的继任者,社会民主党人毛诺-科伊维斯托(Mauno Koivisto),不是莫斯科喜欢的候选人,但他还是当选了,苏芬关系没有发生什么不愉快。唯一的重大挫折,即芬兰经济危机的加深,与芬兰化的政治没有关系。它的出现主要是因为该国的对外贸易在很大程度上是面向东方的。
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我在《评论》上发表的文章(以及我对批评者的两份反驳)1所引发的辩论最终平息了,但所涉及的问题自然继续困扰着芬兰人。谣言甚至开始流传,说凯科宁是苏联特工,但这些谣言被他的官方传记作者作为基本的诽谤而驳回--他拒绝其他人查阅相关档案材料。
然后,大约一年前,克格勃在赫尔辛基的前 "居民 "开始说话: 凯科宁和其他芬兰化的主要支持者都收到了来自莫斯科的钱。最近,苏维埃共产党中央委员会(CPSU)对外部门的档案被打开;这导致了一本名为《CPSU和芬兰》的书: 这些文件毫无疑问地证明,凯科宁路线的主要支持者通过克格勃办公室获得了数百万芬兰马克的报酬:其中一些钱被用于他们的竞选活动,但也有个人使用的款项。
在我的文章中,我多次称凯科宁为(被误导的)爱国者。事实上,我对这个人有一定的好感:这个曾经的奥运跳高金牌得主不可能都是坏人。好吧,也许他是个爱国者;也许即使苏联人从未付给他一个卢布,他也会有这样的行为。
但是,对于美国、英国和其他国家的专家--那些对凯科宁和他的政策大加赞扬并嘲笑我的文章的外交官和学者,我们该怎么说呢?我从未声称自己是芬兰事物的权威,但这些专家应该知道赫尔辛基有什么东西在腐烂。
不过,这也是对冷战时期的判断和误判进行的更广泛的事后总结的一部分。
1 《读者来信》,1978年5月和1978年10月。
2 关于中央社会主义学院档案的其他启示,见埃里克-布林德尔的《莫斯科黄金》,《评论》,1992年12月。
A Postscript on Finlandization
In the 1970's the term “Finlandization” entered the political lexicon and became for a while a major bone of contention.
by Walter Z. Laqueur
In the 1970’s the term “Finlandization” entered the political lexicon and became for a while a major bone of contention. The term referred to the special relationship between Finland and the Soviet Union: it meant, very briefly, appeasement by Finland of its powerful neighbor to the extent that the country could no longer be defined as neutral and independent in the traditional sense. There was no Soviet censorship in Finland, but there was Finnish self-censorship, driven by fear and anxiety, and a great readiness to acquiesce in Soviet wishes was very much in evidence.
Having become interested in the topic, I visited Finland and read everything then available in languages other than Finnish. In December 1977 an article of mine, “The Specter of Finlandization,” appeared in COMMENTARY. The article strove to be measured in tone; I acknowledged that, given Finland’s geopolitical situation, it was obvious that certain concessions toward the Soviets had to be made. But I also argued that Urho Kekkonen, president of Finland for 25 years (1956-81), had carried this trend much too far (though he himself was not a Communist or even a socialist). It was not the policy of wisdom, maturity, and responsibility that Kekkonen and his supporters claimed, and furthermore it set a bad example for the rest of Europe.
“The Specter of Finlandization” was widely commented upon in Finland itself and elsewhere in Scandinavia. The reception there was mixed. Some thought the article was well-informed, others denounced it as ignorant, and a few believed that “Laqueur” was the pseudonym of a highly placed U.S. official. Ironically, however, most Finnish commentators—familiar with the true state of affairs in their country—were far less strident in their defense of Finlandization than some of Kekkonen’s well-wishers in the West.
Thus, a Washington Post commentator maintained that Finland was where most of Europe wanted to be. The eminent American diplomat and historian, George F. Kennan, in a book entitled The Cloud of Danger, praised the Finns—that is to say, the Kekkonen policy—for their “composure and firmness” and objected to the common usage of the term “Finlandization as signifying something humiliating and spineless.” Vice President Walter Mondale, speaking in Helsinki, stated that the term interfered with accurate communication because it was “charged with emotion.” An Israeli professor of political science called Finland a paradigm for the future, a “solution to the problems facing an isolated minor state pitted against a great military power.”
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In 1981 Kekkonen, now getting old, retired or was forced to retire. His successor, Mauno Koivisto, a Social Democrat, was not the candidate preferred by Moscow, but he was elected anyway, and nothing untoward happened to Soviet-Finnish relations. The only major setback, the deepening of Finland’s economic crisis, was unconnected with the politics of Finlandization. It arose mainly because the country’s foreign trade had been largely oriented toward the East.
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The debate triggered by my article in COMMENTARY (and by my two rejoinders to critics)1 eventually died down, but the issues involved naturally continued to preoccupy people in Finland. Rumors even began to circulate that Kekkonen had been a Soviet agent, but they were dismissed as base calumnies by his official biographer—who denied everyone else access to the relevant archival material.
Then, about a year ago, the former “resident” of the KGB in Helsinki began to talk: Kekkonen and other leading proponents of Finlandization had received money from Moscow. More recently, the files of the foreign department of the Central Committee of the Soviet Communist Party (CPSU) were opened; this resulted in a book called The CPSU and Finland: Secret Documents, 1955-68, edited by V. Chernous and Hannu Rautkallio.2 (A second volume is scheduled to appear in early 1993.) The documents proved beyond a shadow of a doubt that the leading proponents of the Kekkonen line had been paid many millions of finnmarks through the office of the KGB: some of this money was used for their election campaigns, but there were also payments for personal use.
In my article I repeatedly called Kekkonen a (misguided) patriot. In fact, I had a certain weakness for the man: the erstwhile winner of an Olympic gold medal in the high jump could not be all bad. Well, perhaps he was a patriot; perhaps he would have acted as he did even if the Soviets had never paid him a single ruble.
But what is one to say about the experts in America, Britain, and elsewhere—those diplomats and academics who showered fulsome praise on Kekkonen and his policies and who derided my article? I never claimed to be an authority on things Finnish, but those experts should have known that something was rotten in Helsinki.
This, however, is part of a wider post-mortem on judgments and misjudgments of the cold-war era.
1 “Letters from Readers,” May 1978 and October 1978.
2 For other revelations from the CPSU files, see Eric Breindel's “Moscow Gold,” COMMENTARY, December 1992.—Ed.
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